Using morphometrics to reappraise old collections: The study case of the Congo Basin Middle Stone Age bifacial industry
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.4329Palabras clave:
Lupemban; Congo Basin; bifacial points; Middle Stone Age; morphometrics; multivariate statistics; fossile directeur; hallmark; old collectionsResumen
Despite its strategic location within the continent, Central Africa is rarely integrated into the reconstruction of population dynamics during the Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Africa, especially in terms of the emergence, diffusion and behavioural patterns of Homo sapiens. However, hundreds of sites have been discovered in Central Africa during the 20th century and attributed to the Lupemban, one of the main MSA technological complexes of the region. This complex is mainly characterised by typological criteria based on the numerous bifacial pieces found in the Congo Basin and interpreted as an adaption to the rainforest environment. Most of these Lupemban assemblages have not been studied for decades and thus it is particularly difficult to assess their diversity. This paper presents a detailed combined morphometrical approach (linear measurements and indices, Log Shape Ratio, Elliptic Fourier Analysis) to take a fresh and rigorous look at the Lupemban bifacial tools. We discuss the comparison of different morphometrical approaches to deal with “old” collections for which contexts, particularly chronological ones, are partially missing. We present the results of this approach on three assemblages of bifacial pieces gathered in the 1930s and late 1960s. We quantify their variability and discuss not only their homogeneity but also the variation of a Lupemban hallmark, namely the “Lupemban point”.
Referencias
Assoko Ndong, A. 2002, Synthèse des données archéologiques récentes sur le peuplement à l’Holocène de la réserve de faune de la Lopé, Gabon. L'Anthropologie, 106(1): 135-158. (in French) ("Review of recent archaeological data on the Holocene peopling of Lopé faunal reserve, Gabon") doi:10.1016/S0003-5521(02)01083-X
Babet, V. 1936, Note préliminaire sur un atelier de pierres taillées à Brazzaville (Afrique Equatoriale Française). Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, 33(2): 153-154. (in French) ("Preliminary note on a knapping workshop in Brazzaville (French Equatorial Africa") URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27912578
Barham, L. 2002, Backed tools in Middle Pleistocene central Africa and their evolutionary significance. Journal of Human Evolution, 43(5): 585-603. doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0597
Barham, L.S. & Smart, P.L. 1996, Current events: An early date for the Middle Stone Age of central Zambia. Journal of Human Evolution, 30(3): 287-290. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0023
de Bayle des Hermens, R. 1973, Recherches préhistoriques en République Centrafricaine. Ph.D. thesis at Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Aix-en-Provence, 500 p. (in French) ("Prehistoric research in Centrafrican Republic")
Bequaert, M. & Mortelmans, G. 1955, Le Tshitolien dans le bassin du Congo. Vol. 5 Vol. 2. Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, Bruxelles, 40 p. (in French) ("The Tshitolian in the Congo Basin")
Bonhomme, V. 2012, A graphical introduction to Momocs and outline analysis using R. Retrieved November 26, 2019. URL: https://www.yumpu.com/s/p2HCjDt1C9jhOx8q
Bonhomme, V., Picq, S., Gaucherel, C. & Claude, J. 2014, Momocs: Outline analysis using R. Journal of Statistical Software, 56(13): 1-24. doi:10.18637/jss.v056.i13
Bookstein, F.L. 1997, Landmark methods for forms without landmarks: morphometrics of group differences in outline shape. Medical Image Analysis, 1(3): 225-243. doi:10.1016/s1361-8415(97)85012-8
Borel, A. 2012, Formes et fonctions au sein des industries lithiques de la fin du Pléistocène et du début de l'Holocène en Asie du Sud-Est : un nouvel apport à la compréhension des comportements humains. BAR International Series Vol. 2351. Archaeopress, Oxford, 384 p. (in French) ("Stone tool forms and functions at the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene in south-eastern Asia")
Borel, A., Cornette, R. & Baylac, M. 2017, Stone Tool Forms and Functions: A Morphometric Analysis of Modern Humans' Stone Tools From Song Terus Cave (Java, Indonesia). Archaeometry, 59(3): 455-471. doi:10.1111/arcm.12264
Breuil, H. 1933, Pierres taillées venant du plateau de Mouka, Oubangui-Chari (Afrique Equatoriale Française). L'Anthropologie, 43: 222-223. (in French) ("Stone tools from the Mouka Plateau, Oubangui-Chari (French Equatorial Africa)")
Breuil, H. 1943, Le Paléolithique au Congo Belge d'après les recherches du Docteur Cabu. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 30(2): 143-160. (in French) ("The Palaeolithic of the Belgian Congo from Doctor Cabu's research") doi:10.1080/00359194309519836
Brooks, A.S., Yellen, J.E., Potts, R., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Deino, A.L., Leslie, D.E., Ambrose, S.H., Ferguson, J.R., d’Errico, F., Zipkin, A.M., Whittaker, S., Post, J., Veatch, E.G., Foecke, K. & Clark, J.B. 2018, Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age. Science, 360(6384): 90-94. doi:10.1126/science.aao2646
Brown, D.J., McSweeney, K. & Helmke, P.A. 2004, Statistical, geochemical, and morphological analyses of stone line formation in Uganda. Geomorphology, 62(3-4): 217-237. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.03.002
Cardillo, M. 2010, Some Applications of Geometric Morphometrics to Archaeology. In: Morphometrics for Nonmorphometricians (Elewa, A.M.T., Ed.), Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg: p. 325-341. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-95853-6_15
Carlson, D.L. 2017, Quantitative Methods in Archaeology Using R. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 431 p. doi:10.1017/9781139628730
Carlson, R.L. 2015, Khor Abu Anga and Magendohli : Stone Age sites on the Sudanese Nile. BAR International Series Vol. 2768. BAR Publishing, Oxford, 145 p.
Chacón, M.G., Détroit, F., Coudenneau, A. & Moncel, M.-H. 2016, Morphometric Assessment of Convergent Tool Technology and Function during the Early Middle Palaeolithic: The Case of Payre, France. PLoS One, 11(5): e0155316. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155316
Chevrier, B., Rasse, M., Lespez, L., Tribolo, C., Hajdas, I., Guardiola Fígols, M., Lebrun, B., Leplongeon, A., Camara, A. & Huysecom, É. 2016, West African Palaeolithic history: New archaeological and chronostratigraphic data from the Falémé valley, eastern Senegal. Quaternary International, 408: 33-52. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.060
Clark, J.D. 1967, Atlas of African prehistory. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 38 maps and 62 p.
Clark, J.D. 1971, Problems of Archaeological Nomenclature and Definition in the Congo Basin. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 26(101/102): 67-78. doi:10.2307/3888529
Clark, J.D. 2001, Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, III: The Earlier Cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 701 p.
Clark, J.D., Beyene, Y., WoldeGabriel, G., Hart, W.K., Renne, P.R., Gilbert, H., Defleur, A., Suwa, G., Katoh, S., Ludwig, K.R., Boisserie, J.-R., Asfaw, B. & White, T.D. 2003, Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioural contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423(6941): 747-752. doi:10.1038/nature01670
Cornelissen, E. 2002, Human responses to changing environments in Central Africa between 40,000 and 12,000 BP. Journal of World Prehistory, 16(3): 197-235. doi:10.1023/a:1020949501304
Couttenier, M. 2012, Sociétés scientifiques, musées, universités. L’étude de la Préhistoire du Congo belge (1877-1936). Les nouvelles de l'archéologie, 128: 23-27. (in French) ("Scientific societies, museums, universities. The study of the Prehistory of Belgian Congo (1877-1936)") doi:10.4000/nda.1636
Dadet, P. 1966, Carte géologique de la République du Congo: zone comprise entre les parallèles 2° et 5° sud. Bureau de recherches géologiques et minières; Bureau minier de la France dʹoutre mer, Orléans. (in French) ("Geological map of the Republic of Congo: area between parallels 2° and 5° south")
Davies, O. 1964, The Quaternary in the coastlands of Guinea. University Press, Glasgow, 276 p.
Davies, O. 1976, The 'Sangoan' Industries. Annals of the Natal Museum, 22(3): 885-911. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/AJA03040798_600
Demayumba, N. 2018, Contribution à l'étude du Middle Stone Age (MSA) d'Afrique Centrale. Etude typo-technologique des industries lithiques des sites préhistoriques de MPila, Brazzaville, République du Congo. Master thesis at Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris, 80 p. (in French) ("Contribution to the study of the Central African Middle Stone Age (MSA). Typo-technological study of the lithic industries of the prehistoric sites of MPila Brazzaville, Republic of Congo")
Douze, K. 2011, L’Afrique de l’Est dans la réflexion globale sur le Middle Stone Age. Annales d'Ethiopie, 26(1): 15-51. (in French) ("East Africa in the global consideration on the Middle Stone Age") doi:10.3406/ethio.2011.1430
Droux, G. & Bergeaud, G. 1937, Nouveaux ateliers préhistoriques à Brazzaville. Bulletin de la Société des Recherches Congolaises, 24: 210-233. (in French) ("New prehistoric workshops in Brazzaville")
Hublin, J.-J., Ben-Ncer, A., Bailey, S.E., Freidline, S.E., Neubauer, S., Skinner, M.M., Bergmann, I., Le Cabec, A., Benazzi, S. & Harvati, K. 2017, New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens. Nature, 546(7657): 289-292. doi:10.1038/nature22336
Husson, F., Josse, J., Le, S. & Mazet, J. (2019). FactoMineR: Multivariate Exploratory Data Analysis and Data Mining (Version 2.0).
Ioviţă, R. 2009, Ontogenetic scaling and lithic systematics: method and application. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(7): 1447-1457. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.02.008
Ioviţă, R. & McPherron, S.P. 2011, The handaxe reloaded: A morphometric reassessment of Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic handaxes. Journal of Human Evolution, 61(1): 61-74. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.02.007
Kuman, K. & Clarke, R.J. 2000, Stratigraphy, artefact industries and hominid associations for Sterkfontein, Member 5. Journal of Human Evolution, 38(6): 827-847. doi:10.1006/jhev.1999.0392
Lanfranchi, R. & Lanfranchi-Salvi, C. 1986, Préhistoire du site de Brazzaville. In: Journée d'Etude sur Brazzaville, ORSTOM (Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer), Brazzaville, R. P. Congo: p. 57-74. (in French) ("Prehistory of the site of Brazzaville") URL: http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_7/carton01/25693.pdf
Lanfranchi-Salvi, C. 1990, Les industries du Stanley-Pool: problèmes stratigraphiques. In: Paysages quaternaires de l'Afrique centrale atlantique, Lanfranchi R., Schwartz D., Paris: p. 439-446. (in French) ("The Stanley-Pool industries: stratigraphic problems")
Lê, S., Josse, J. & Husson, F. 2008, FactoMineR: An R package for multivariate analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 25(1): 1-18. doi:10.18637/jss.v025.i01
Leakey, L.S.B. 1949, Tentative study of the pleistocene climatic changes and stone-age culture sequence in North-Eastern Angola. Publicações culturais Vol. 4. Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, Serviços Culturais, Lisboa, Portugal, 82 p.
MacCalman, H.R. & Viereck, A. 1967, Peperkorrel, a Factory Site of Lupemban Affinities from Central South West Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 22(86): 41. doi:10.2307/3888081
Matoumba, M. 2011, Recherches archéologiques dans la Nyanga (Sud-ouest du Gabon): 1929-2000. Editions Odette Maganga, Libreville, Gabon, 135 p. (in French) ("Archaeological research in Nyanga (south-western Gabon): 1929-2000")
Matoumba, M. 2013, Paléolithique au Gabon: les technologies lithiques dans la région de la Nyanga (sud-ouest). L'Harmattan, Paris, 192 p. (in French) ("Palaeolithic of Gabon: lithic technologies in the region of Nyanga (south-west)")
McBrearty, S. 1985, The archaeology of the Muguruk site, western Kenya. PhD thesis at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, CITY, 392 p.
McBrearty, S. 1988, The Sangoan‐Lupemban and middle stone age sequence at the Muguruk site, western Kenya. World Archaeology, 19(3): 388-420. doi:10.1080/00438243.1988.9980048
McBrearty, S. & Brooks, A.S. 2000, The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39(5): 453-563. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435
Menghin, O. 1925, Die Tumbakultur am unteren Kongo und der westafrikanische Kulturkreis. Anthropos, 20(3/4): 516-557. (in German) ("The Tumba culture in the Lower Congo and the West African culture") URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40445048
Mercader, J. 2002, Under the canopy: the archaeology of tropical rain forests. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 322 p.
Mercader, J., Martı́, R., Martı́nez, J.L. & Brooks, A. 2002, The nature of ‘stone-lines’ in the African quaternary record: archaeological resolution at the rainforest site of Mosumu, Equatorial Guinea. Quaternary International, 89(1): 71-96. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(01)00082-9
Mesfin, I. 2018, Les assemblages lithiques lupembiens conservés au Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle : apports et perspectives pour la connaissance du Middle Stone Age d’Afrique centrale. Master thesis at Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle - Erasmus Mundus, Paris, 127 p. (in French) ("The Lupemban lithic assemblages stored at the National Museum of natural History: contributions and perspectives for the knowledge of the Central African Middle Stone Age")
Mesfin, I., Leplongeon, A., Cabanès, J. & Pleurdeau, D. in prep., New technological considerations on some Lupemban assemblages from the Congo Basin. unpublished manuscript in preparation.
Mosimann, J.E. 1970, Size allometry: Size and shape variables with characterizations of the lognormal and generalized gamma distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 65(330): 930-945. doi:10.2307/2284599
O'Brien, T.P. 1939, The Prehistory of Uganda Protectorate. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 315 p.
Okumura, M. & Araujo, A.G.M. 2018 (2019???), Archaeology, biology, and borrowing: A critical examination of Geometric Morphometrics in Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science, 101: 149-158. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2017.09.015
Pleurdeau, D. 2003, Le Middle Stone Age de la grotte du Porc-Épic (Dire Dawa, Éthiopie) : gestion des matières premières et comportements techniques. L'Anthropologie, 107(1): 15-48. (in French) ("The Middle Stone Age of Porc-Epic cave (Dire Dawa, Ethiopia): Raw material management and technical behaviours") doi:10.1016/S0003-5521(02)00003-1
Pommeret, Y. 1965, Civilisations préhistoriques au Gabon : Vallée du Moyen Ogooué, présentation de l'industrie lithique de tradition sangoenne, lupembienne et néolithique. Vol. 1 (Mémoire de la Société Préhistorique et Protohistorique Gabonaise ed.). Centre culturel français Saint Exupéry, Libreville, 65 p. (in French) ("Prehistoric civilisations of Gabon: Middle Ogooué Valley, presentation of the lithic industry of sangoan, lupemban and neolithic traditions")
Porraz, G., Texier, P.-J., Rigaud, J.-P., Parkington, J.E., Poggenpoel, C. & Roberts, D.L. 2008, Preliminary characterization of a Middle Stone Age lithic assemblage preceding the 'classic' Howieson's Poort Complex at Diepkloof rock shelter, Western Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10: 105-121. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40650022
R Core Team 2018, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria. Retrieved November 26, 2019. URL: http://www.R-project.org
Rezek, Z., Lin, S., Ioviţă, R. & Dibble, H.L. 2011, The relative effects of core surface morphology on flake shape and other attributes. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(6): 1346-1359. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.01.014
Richard, R. 1960, Hypothèses sur l'expansion et l'évolution des industries de Style Sangoen et Kalinien dans l'Ouest Africain. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, 57(Fasc. 1/2): 95-104. (in French) ("Hypotheses on the expansion and evolution of the Sangoan and Kalinian industries in West Africa") doi:10.3406/bspf.1960.3437
Rohlf, F.J. 2015, The tps series of software. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy, 26(1): 9-12. doi:10.4404/hystrix-26.1-11264
Rohlf, F.J. (2018). tpsDIG2 (Version 2.31).
Scerri, E.M.L., Blinkhorn, J., Groucutt, H.S. & Niang, K. 2016, The Middle Stone Age archaeology of the Senegal River Valley. Quaternary International, 408: 16-32. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.025
Schwartz, D. 1996, Archéologie Préhistorique et processus de formation des stone-lines en Afrique Centrale (Congo-Brazzaville et zones periphériques). Geo-Eco-Trop, 20(1-4): 15-38. (in French) ("Prehistoric archaeology and formation processes of stone-lines in Central Africa") URL: http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/b_fdi_47-48/010011752.pdf
Serwatka, K. 2015, Shape variation of Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tools from southern Poland: a geometric morphometric approach to Keilmessergruppen handaxes and backed knives. Lithics - The Journal of the Lithic Studies Society, 35: 18-32.
Serwatka, K. & Riede, F. 2016, 2D geometric morphometric analysis casts doubt on the validity of large tanged points as cultural markers in the European Final Palaeolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 9: 150-159. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.07.018
Stout, D. 2002, Skill and Cognition in Stone Tool Production: An Ethnographic Case Study from Irian Jaya. Current Anthropology, 43(5): 693-722. doi:10.1086/342638
Taylor, N. 2009, The role of Lupemban core-axes in the hominin dispersal into the Congo basin, central Africa: a functional assessment by use-wear analysis. University of Liverpool. PhD thesis at University of Liverpool, Liverpool, 491 p.
Taylor, N. 2011, The origins of hunting & gathering in the Congo basin: A perspective on the Middle Stone Age Lupemban industry. Before Farming, 2011(1): 1-20. doi:10.3828/bfarm.2011.1.6
Taylor, N. 2016, Across Rainforests and Woodlands: A Systematic Reappraisal of the Lupemban Middle Stone Age in Central Africa. In: Africa from MIS 6-2 (Jones, S.C. & Stewart, B.A., Eds.), Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht: p. 273-299. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_15
Van Moorsel, H. 1968, Atlas de préhistoire de la plaine de Kinshasa. Université Lovanium, Kinshasa, 287 p. (in French) ("Atlas of Kinshasa plain prehistory")
Van Peer, P., Fullagar, R., Stokes, S., Bailey, R.M., Moeyersons, J., Steenhoudt, F., Geerts, A., Vanderbeken, T., De Dapper, M. & Geus, F. 2003, The Early to Middle Stone Age Transition and the Emergence of Modern Human Behaviour at site 8-B-11, Sai Island, Sudan. Journal of Human Evolution, 45(2): 187-193. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00103-9
Van Peer, P., Rots, V. & Vroomans, J.-M. 2004, A story of colourful diggers and grinders: The Sangoan and Lupemban at site 8-B-11, Sai Island, Northern Sudan. Before Farming, 2004(3): 1-28. doi:10.3828/bfarm.2004.3.1
Villa, P., Soressi, M., Henshilwood, C.S. & Mourre, V. 2009, The Still Bay points of Blombos Cave (South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(2): 441-460. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.028
White, T.D., Asfaw, B., DeGusta, D., Gilbert, H., Richards, G.D., Suwa, G. & Howell, F.C. 2003, Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423(6941): 742-747. doi:10.1038/nature01669
Wurz, S. 2002, Variability in the middle stone age lithic sequence, 115,000-60,000 years ago at Klasies river, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29(9): 1001-1015. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0799
Babet, V. 1936, Note préliminaire sur un atelier de pierres taillées à Brazzaville (Afrique Equatoriale Française). Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, 33(2): 153-154. (in French) ("Preliminary note on a knapping workshop in Brazzaville (French Equatorial Africa") URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27912578
Barham, L. 2002, Backed tools in Middle Pleistocene central Africa and their evolutionary significance. Journal of Human Evolution, 43(5): 585-603. doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0597
Barham, L.S. & Smart, P.L. 1996, Current events: An early date for the Middle Stone Age of central Zambia. Journal of Human Evolution, 30(3): 287-290. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0023
de Bayle des Hermens, R. 1973, Recherches préhistoriques en République Centrafricaine. Ph.D. thesis at Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Aix-en-Provence, 500 p. (in French) ("Prehistoric research in Centrafrican Republic")
Bequaert, M. & Mortelmans, G. 1955, Le Tshitolien dans le bassin du Congo. Vol. 5 Vol. 2. Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, Bruxelles, 40 p. (in French) ("The Tshitolian in the Congo Basin")
Bonhomme, V. 2012, A graphical introduction to Momocs and outline analysis using R. Retrieved November 26, 2019. URL: https://www.yumpu.com/s/p2HCjDt1C9jhOx8q
Bonhomme, V., Picq, S., Gaucherel, C. & Claude, J. 2014, Momocs: Outline analysis using R. Journal of Statistical Software, 56(13): 1-24. doi:10.18637/jss.v056.i13
Bookstein, F.L. 1997, Landmark methods for forms without landmarks: morphometrics of group differences in outline shape. Medical Image Analysis, 1(3): 225-243. doi:10.1016/s1361-8415(97)85012-8
Borel, A. 2012, Formes et fonctions au sein des industries lithiques de la fin du Pléistocène et du début de l'Holocène en Asie du Sud-Est : un nouvel apport à la compréhension des comportements humains. BAR International Series Vol. 2351. Archaeopress, Oxford, 384 p. (in French) ("Stone tool forms and functions at the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene in south-eastern Asia")
Borel, A., Cornette, R. & Baylac, M. 2017, Stone Tool Forms and Functions: A Morphometric Analysis of Modern Humans' Stone Tools From Song Terus Cave (Java, Indonesia). Archaeometry, 59(3): 455-471. doi:10.1111/arcm.12264
Breuil, H. 1933, Pierres taillées venant du plateau de Mouka, Oubangui-Chari (Afrique Equatoriale Française). L'Anthropologie, 43: 222-223. (in French) ("Stone tools from the Mouka Plateau, Oubangui-Chari (French Equatorial Africa)")
Breuil, H. 1943, Le Paléolithique au Congo Belge d'après les recherches du Docteur Cabu. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 30(2): 143-160. (in French) ("The Palaeolithic of the Belgian Congo from Doctor Cabu's research") doi:10.1080/00359194309519836
Brooks, A.S., Yellen, J.E., Potts, R., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Deino, A.L., Leslie, D.E., Ambrose, S.H., Ferguson, J.R., d’Errico, F., Zipkin, A.M., Whittaker, S., Post, J., Veatch, E.G., Foecke, K. & Clark, J.B. 2018, Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age. Science, 360(6384): 90-94. doi:10.1126/science.aao2646
Brown, D.J., McSweeney, K. & Helmke, P.A. 2004, Statistical, geochemical, and morphological analyses of stone line formation in Uganda. Geomorphology, 62(3-4): 217-237. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.03.002
Cardillo, M. 2010, Some Applications of Geometric Morphometrics to Archaeology. In: Morphometrics for Nonmorphometricians (Elewa, A.M.T., Ed.), Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg: p. 325-341. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-95853-6_15
Carlson, D.L. 2017, Quantitative Methods in Archaeology Using R. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 431 p. doi:10.1017/9781139628730
Carlson, R.L. 2015, Khor Abu Anga and Magendohli : Stone Age sites on the Sudanese Nile. BAR International Series Vol. 2768. BAR Publishing, Oxford, 145 p.
Chacón, M.G., Détroit, F., Coudenneau, A. & Moncel, M.-H. 2016, Morphometric Assessment of Convergent Tool Technology and Function during the Early Middle Palaeolithic: The Case of Payre, France. PLoS One, 11(5): e0155316. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155316
Chevrier, B., Rasse, M., Lespez, L., Tribolo, C., Hajdas, I., Guardiola Fígols, M., Lebrun, B., Leplongeon, A., Camara, A. & Huysecom, É. 2016, West African Palaeolithic history: New archaeological and chronostratigraphic data from the Falémé valley, eastern Senegal. Quaternary International, 408: 33-52. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.060
Clark, J.D. 1967, Atlas of African prehistory. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 38 maps and 62 p.
Clark, J.D. 1971, Problems of Archaeological Nomenclature and Definition in the Congo Basin. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 26(101/102): 67-78. doi:10.2307/3888529
Clark, J.D. 2001, Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, III: The Earlier Cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 701 p.
Clark, J.D., Beyene, Y., WoldeGabriel, G., Hart, W.K., Renne, P.R., Gilbert, H., Defleur, A., Suwa, G., Katoh, S., Ludwig, K.R., Boisserie, J.-R., Asfaw, B. & White, T.D. 2003, Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioural contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423(6941): 747-752. doi:10.1038/nature01670
Cornelissen, E. 2002, Human responses to changing environments in Central Africa between 40,000 and 12,000 BP. Journal of World Prehistory, 16(3): 197-235. doi:10.1023/a:1020949501304
Couttenier, M. 2012, Sociétés scientifiques, musées, universités. L’étude de la Préhistoire du Congo belge (1877-1936). Les nouvelles de l'archéologie, 128: 23-27. (in French) ("Scientific societies, museums, universities. The study of the Prehistory of Belgian Congo (1877-1936)") doi:10.4000/nda.1636
Dadet, P. 1966, Carte géologique de la République du Congo: zone comprise entre les parallèles 2° et 5° sud. Bureau de recherches géologiques et minières; Bureau minier de la France dʹoutre mer, Orléans. (in French) ("Geological map of the Republic of Congo: area between parallels 2° and 5° south")
Davies, O. 1964, The Quaternary in the coastlands of Guinea. University Press, Glasgow, 276 p.
Davies, O. 1976, The 'Sangoan' Industries. Annals of the Natal Museum, 22(3): 885-911. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/AJA03040798_600
Demayumba, N. 2018, Contribution à l'étude du Middle Stone Age (MSA) d'Afrique Centrale. Etude typo-technologique des industries lithiques des sites préhistoriques de MPila, Brazzaville, République du Congo. Master thesis at Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris, 80 p. (in French) ("Contribution to the study of the Central African Middle Stone Age (MSA). Typo-technological study of the lithic industries of the prehistoric sites of MPila Brazzaville, Republic of Congo")
Douze, K. 2011, L’Afrique de l’Est dans la réflexion globale sur le Middle Stone Age. Annales d'Ethiopie, 26(1): 15-51. (in French) ("East Africa in the global consideration on the Middle Stone Age") doi:10.3406/ethio.2011.1430
Droux, G. & Bergeaud, G. 1937, Nouveaux ateliers préhistoriques à Brazzaville. Bulletin de la Société des Recherches Congolaises, 24: 210-233. (in French) ("New prehistoric workshops in Brazzaville")
Hublin, J.-J., Ben-Ncer, A., Bailey, S.E., Freidline, S.E., Neubauer, S., Skinner, M.M., Bergmann, I., Le Cabec, A., Benazzi, S. & Harvati, K. 2017, New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens. Nature, 546(7657): 289-292. doi:10.1038/nature22336
Husson, F., Josse, J., Le, S. & Mazet, J. (2019). FactoMineR: Multivariate Exploratory Data Analysis and Data Mining (Version 2.0).
Ioviţă, R. 2009, Ontogenetic scaling and lithic systematics: method and application. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(7): 1447-1457. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.02.008
Ioviţă, R. & McPherron, S.P. 2011, The handaxe reloaded: A morphometric reassessment of Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic handaxes. Journal of Human Evolution, 61(1): 61-74. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.02.007
Kuman, K. & Clarke, R.J. 2000, Stratigraphy, artefact industries and hominid associations for Sterkfontein, Member 5. Journal of Human Evolution, 38(6): 827-847. doi:10.1006/jhev.1999.0392
Lanfranchi, R. & Lanfranchi-Salvi, C. 1986, Préhistoire du site de Brazzaville. In: Journée d'Etude sur Brazzaville, ORSTOM (Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer), Brazzaville, R. P. Congo: p. 57-74. (in French) ("Prehistory of the site of Brazzaville") URL: http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_7/carton01/25693.pdf
Lanfranchi-Salvi, C. 1990, Les industries du Stanley-Pool: problèmes stratigraphiques. In: Paysages quaternaires de l'Afrique centrale atlantique, Lanfranchi R., Schwartz D., Paris: p. 439-446. (in French) ("The Stanley-Pool industries: stratigraphic problems")
Lê, S., Josse, J. & Husson, F. 2008, FactoMineR: An R package for multivariate analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 25(1): 1-18. doi:10.18637/jss.v025.i01
Leakey, L.S.B. 1949, Tentative study of the pleistocene climatic changes and stone-age culture sequence in North-Eastern Angola. Publicações culturais Vol. 4. Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, Serviços Culturais, Lisboa, Portugal, 82 p.
MacCalman, H.R. & Viereck, A. 1967, Peperkorrel, a Factory Site of Lupemban Affinities from Central South West Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 22(86): 41. doi:10.2307/3888081
Matoumba, M. 2011, Recherches archéologiques dans la Nyanga (Sud-ouest du Gabon): 1929-2000. Editions Odette Maganga, Libreville, Gabon, 135 p. (in French) ("Archaeological research in Nyanga (south-western Gabon): 1929-2000")
Matoumba, M. 2013, Paléolithique au Gabon: les technologies lithiques dans la région de la Nyanga (sud-ouest). L'Harmattan, Paris, 192 p. (in French) ("Palaeolithic of Gabon: lithic technologies in the region of Nyanga (south-west)")
McBrearty, S. 1985, The archaeology of the Muguruk site, western Kenya. PhD thesis at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, CITY, 392 p.
McBrearty, S. 1988, The Sangoan‐Lupemban and middle stone age sequence at the Muguruk site, western Kenya. World Archaeology, 19(3): 388-420. doi:10.1080/00438243.1988.9980048
McBrearty, S. & Brooks, A.S. 2000, The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39(5): 453-563. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435
Menghin, O. 1925, Die Tumbakultur am unteren Kongo und der westafrikanische Kulturkreis. Anthropos, 20(3/4): 516-557. (in German) ("The Tumba culture in the Lower Congo and the West African culture") URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40445048
Mercader, J. 2002, Under the canopy: the archaeology of tropical rain forests. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 322 p.
Mercader, J., Martı́, R., Martı́nez, J.L. & Brooks, A. 2002, The nature of ‘stone-lines’ in the African quaternary record: archaeological resolution at the rainforest site of Mosumu, Equatorial Guinea. Quaternary International, 89(1): 71-96. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(01)00082-9
Mesfin, I. 2018, Les assemblages lithiques lupembiens conservés au Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle : apports et perspectives pour la connaissance du Middle Stone Age d’Afrique centrale. Master thesis at Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle - Erasmus Mundus, Paris, 127 p. (in French) ("The Lupemban lithic assemblages stored at the National Museum of natural History: contributions and perspectives for the knowledge of the Central African Middle Stone Age")
Mesfin, I., Leplongeon, A., Cabanès, J. & Pleurdeau, D. in prep., New technological considerations on some Lupemban assemblages from the Congo Basin. unpublished manuscript in preparation.
Mosimann, J.E. 1970, Size allometry: Size and shape variables with characterizations of the lognormal and generalized gamma distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 65(330): 930-945. doi:10.2307/2284599
O'Brien, T.P. 1939, The Prehistory of Uganda Protectorate. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 315 p.
Okumura, M. & Araujo, A.G.M. 2018 (2019???), Archaeology, biology, and borrowing: A critical examination of Geometric Morphometrics in Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science, 101: 149-158. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2017.09.015
Pleurdeau, D. 2003, Le Middle Stone Age de la grotte du Porc-Épic (Dire Dawa, Éthiopie) : gestion des matières premières et comportements techniques. L'Anthropologie, 107(1): 15-48. (in French) ("The Middle Stone Age of Porc-Epic cave (Dire Dawa, Ethiopia): Raw material management and technical behaviours") doi:10.1016/S0003-5521(02)00003-1
Pommeret, Y. 1965, Civilisations préhistoriques au Gabon : Vallée du Moyen Ogooué, présentation de l'industrie lithique de tradition sangoenne, lupembienne et néolithique. Vol. 1 (Mémoire de la Société Préhistorique et Protohistorique Gabonaise ed.). Centre culturel français Saint Exupéry, Libreville, 65 p. (in French) ("Prehistoric civilisations of Gabon: Middle Ogooué Valley, presentation of the lithic industry of sangoan, lupemban and neolithic traditions")
Porraz, G., Texier, P.-J., Rigaud, J.-P., Parkington, J.E., Poggenpoel, C. & Roberts, D.L. 2008, Preliminary characterization of a Middle Stone Age lithic assemblage preceding the 'classic' Howieson's Poort Complex at Diepkloof rock shelter, Western Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 10: 105-121. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40650022
R Core Team 2018, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria. Retrieved November 26, 2019. URL: http://www.R-project.org
Rezek, Z., Lin, S., Ioviţă, R. & Dibble, H.L. 2011, The relative effects of core surface morphology on flake shape and other attributes. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(6): 1346-1359. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.01.014
Richard, R. 1960, Hypothèses sur l'expansion et l'évolution des industries de Style Sangoen et Kalinien dans l'Ouest Africain. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, 57(Fasc. 1/2): 95-104. (in French) ("Hypotheses on the expansion and evolution of the Sangoan and Kalinian industries in West Africa") doi:10.3406/bspf.1960.3437
Rohlf, F.J. 2015, The tps series of software. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy, 26(1): 9-12. doi:10.4404/hystrix-26.1-11264
Rohlf, F.J. (2018). tpsDIG2 (Version 2.31).
Scerri, E.M.L., Blinkhorn, J., Groucutt, H.S. & Niang, K. 2016, The Middle Stone Age archaeology of the Senegal River Valley. Quaternary International, 408: 16-32. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.025
Schwartz, D. 1996, Archéologie Préhistorique et processus de formation des stone-lines en Afrique Centrale (Congo-Brazzaville et zones periphériques). Geo-Eco-Trop, 20(1-4): 15-38. (in French) ("Prehistoric archaeology and formation processes of stone-lines in Central Africa") URL: http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/b_fdi_47-48/010011752.pdf
Serwatka, K. 2015, Shape variation of Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tools from southern Poland: a geometric morphometric approach to Keilmessergruppen handaxes and backed knives. Lithics - The Journal of the Lithic Studies Society, 35: 18-32.
Serwatka, K. & Riede, F. 2016, 2D geometric morphometric analysis casts doubt on the validity of large tanged points as cultural markers in the European Final Palaeolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 9: 150-159. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.07.018
Stout, D. 2002, Skill and Cognition in Stone Tool Production: An Ethnographic Case Study from Irian Jaya. Current Anthropology, 43(5): 693-722. doi:10.1086/342638
Taylor, N. 2009, The role of Lupemban core-axes in the hominin dispersal into the Congo basin, central Africa: a functional assessment by use-wear analysis. University of Liverpool. PhD thesis at University of Liverpool, Liverpool, 491 p.
Taylor, N. 2011, The origins of hunting & gathering in the Congo basin: A perspective on the Middle Stone Age Lupemban industry. Before Farming, 2011(1): 1-20. doi:10.3828/bfarm.2011.1.6
Taylor, N. 2016, Across Rainforests and Woodlands: A Systematic Reappraisal of the Lupemban Middle Stone Age in Central Africa. In: Africa from MIS 6-2 (Jones, S.C. & Stewart, B.A., Eds.), Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht: p. 273-299. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_15
Van Moorsel, H. 1968, Atlas de préhistoire de la plaine de Kinshasa. Université Lovanium, Kinshasa, 287 p. (in French) ("Atlas of Kinshasa plain prehistory")
Van Peer, P., Fullagar, R., Stokes, S., Bailey, R.M., Moeyersons, J., Steenhoudt, F., Geerts, A., Vanderbeken, T., De Dapper, M. & Geus, F. 2003, The Early to Middle Stone Age Transition and the Emergence of Modern Human Behaviour at site 8-B-11, Sai Island, Sudan. Journal of Human Evolution, 45(2): 187-193. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00103-9
Van Peer, P., Rots, V. & Vroomans, J.-M. 2004, A story of colourful diggers and grinders: The Sangoan and Lupemban at site 8-B-11, Sai Island, Northern Sudan. Before Farming, 2004(3): 1-28. doi:10.3828/bfarm.2004.3.1
Villa, P., Soressi, M., Henshilwood, C.S. & Mourre, V. 2009, The Still Bay points of Blombos Cave (South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(2): 441-460. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.028
White, T.D., Asfaw, B., DeGusta, D., Gilbert, H., Richards, G.D., Suwa, G. & Howell, F.C. 2003, Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423(6941): 742-747. doi:10.1038/nature01669
Wurz, S. 2002, Variability in the middle stone age lithic sequence, 115,000-60,000 years ago at Klasies river, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29(9): 1001-1015. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0799
Descargas
Publicado
15-Mar-2020
Número
Sección
Research articles from the MetroArcheo conference
Licencia
This is an Open Access journal. All material is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence, unless otherwise stated.
Please read our Open Access, Copyright and Permissions policies for more information.
Cómo citar
Using morphometrics to reappraise old collections: The study case of the Congo Basin Middle Stone Age bifacial industry. (2020). Journal of Lithic Studies, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.4329
