Kimberley points of Western Australia: Pressure flaking, projections and prestige
Keywords:
biface, pressure-flaking, Kimberley Points, Australian archaeology, stone tools
Abstract
Kimberley points are pressure flaked bifaces with marginal projections, produced within the last millennium, in north Western Australia. These points were hafted for hunting and fighting in recent times, although there is some suggestion that smaller points tended to be hafted for use in favour of larger points, which were reserved for trade and exchange. Kimberley Points are imbued with strong social signalling and prestige qualities, known from Historic times. This paper examines whether these qualities are reflected archaeologically in their marginal projections produced with pressure flaking; and their morphology and production. Multiple sources of Kimberley Point archaeology, ethnography, and production are critically reviewed. As prestige items, the marginal projections are found to very likely relate to their social value, rather than functional drive, which this study investigates using morphological approaches. Samples from both ethnographic collections and archaeological surface assemblages are analysed. The study finds that biface elongation, length and perimeter length each greatly influenced the number of and size of marginal projections, regardless of raw material. This aspect of production probably reflects the value and social prestige for large serrated points, likely produced by the knapper before an audience in virtuoso displays of pressure flaking. It is conceivable that these complex social practices emerged around 1,000 years ago. This study provides a rare glimpse into the social values of stone tool produces, and links archaeological data to social values in the past.
References
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Akerman, K. 1979, Heat and Lithic Technology in the Kimberleys, W. A. Archaeology & Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 14(2): 144-151. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40386342
Akerman, K. 2008, Missing the point or what to believe - the theory of the data: rationales for the production of Kimberley points. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2: 70-79.
Akerman, K. & Bindon, P. 1995, Dentate and related stone biface points from northern Australia. The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory, 12: 89-99.
Akerman, K. & Bindon, P. 1984, The Edge-ground Stone Adze and Modern Counterparts in the Kimberley Region, Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum, 11(4): 357-373.
Akerman, K., Fullagar, R. & van Gijn, A. 2002, Weapons and Wunan: production, function and exchange of Kimberley points. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 1: 14-42.
Akerman, K., & Stanton, J. 1994, Riji and Jakoli: Kimberley pearl shell in Aboriginal Australia. Northern Territory Museum Monograph Series. Vol. 4. Northern Territory Museum, Darwin, 73 p.
Andrefsky, W.J. 1994, Raw-Material Availability and the Organization of Technology. American Antiquity, 59(1): 21-34. doi:10.2307/3085499
Balfour, H.R. 1903, On the methods employed by the natives of N.W. Australia in the manufacture of glass spear heads. Man, 1(5): 65. doi:10.2307/2839799
Balfour, H.R. 1951, A native tool kit from the Kimberley district, Western Australia. Mankind, 4(7): 273-274. doi:10.1111/j.1835-9310.1951.tb00250.x
Basedow, H. 1925, The Australian Aboriginal. F.W. Preece and Sons, Adelaide, 422 p.
Blundell, V.J. 1975, Aboriginal Adaptation in Northwest Australia. PhD at the Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1642 p.
Blundell, V.J. & Woolagoodj, D. 2005, Keeping The Wandjinas Fresh. Freemantle Press, Perth, 293 p.
Carr, C. 1995, A Unified Middle-Range Theory of Artifact Design. In: Style, Society, and Person: Archaeological and Ethnological Perspectives, (Carr, C.N., J., Ed.), Plenum Press., New York: p. 171-258.
Clarkson, C. 2002, An index of invasiveness for the measurement of unifacial and bifacial retouch: a theoretical, experimental and archaeological verification. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29: 65-75. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0702
Clarkson, C. 2007, Lithics in the Land of the Lightning Brothers: The Archaeology of Wardaman Country, Northern Territory. Vol. 25. Terra Australis. ANU Press, 222 p. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24hb95
Crabtree, D.E. 1966, A stoneworker's approach to analyzing and replicating the Lindenmeier Folsom. Tebiwa, 9(1): 3-39.
Crabtree, D.E. 1973, Experiments in replicating Hohokam points. Tebiwa, 16(1): 10-45.
Crawford, I.M. 1968, The Art of the Wandjina. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 144 p.
Davidson, D.S. 1935, Archaeological Problems of Northern Australia. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 65: 145-183. doi:10.2307/2843847
Davidson, D.S. & McCarthy, F.D. 1957, The Distribution and Chronology of Some Important Types of Stone Implements in Western Australia. Anthropos, 52(3/4): 390-458. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40454078
Elkin, A.P. 1948, Pressure Flaking in the Northern Kimberley, Australia. Man, 48: 110-113. doi:10.2307/2791788
Falkenberg, F. 1968, Spyd og kastetraer fra murinbataene i Nord-Australia. In: Spyd og kastetraer fra murinbataene i Nord-Australia, University of Oslo Ethnographic Museum Yearbook, Oslo, p. 15-38.
Gould, R.A. 1980, Living Archaeology. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 270 p.
Harrison, R. 2002, Archaeology and the colonial encounter: Kimberley spear points, cultural identity and masculinity in the north of Australia. Journal of Social Archaeology, 2: 352-377. doi:10.1177/146960530200200304
Harrison, R. 2004, Kimberley Points and Colonial Preference: New Insights into the Chronology of Pressure Flaked Point Forms from the Southeast Kimberley, Western Australia. Archaeology in Oceania, 39(1): 1-11. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.2004.tb00552.x
Harrison, R. 2006, An Artefact of Colonial Desire? Kimberley Points and the Technologies of Enchantment Current Anthropology, 47(1): 63-88. doi:10.1086/497673
Haury, E.W. 1976, The Hohokam: desert farmers and craftsmen - excavations at Snaketown. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, Arizona, 424 p.
Hiscock, P. & Maloney, T. 2017, Australian lithic technology: evolution, dispersion and connectivity. In: Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalisation, (Hodos, T., Ed.), Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, p. 301-318.
Hoffman, C.M. 1997, Alliance Formation and Social Interaction During the Sedentary Period: A Stylistic Analysis of Hohokam Arrowpoints. Ph.D. thesis at the Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Arizona, 1328 p.
Högberg, A. & Lombard, M. 2016, Indications of pressure flaking more than 70 thousand years ago at umhlatuzana rock shelter. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 71(203): 53-59. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24894827
Hunter, P. 2014. Investigating the History of Bandicoot Bay through Glass Artefacts (Poster). presented at the AAA/ASHA Annual Conference. Cairns, Australia, 1-3 December.
Indriess, I. 1937, Over the Range: Sunshine and Shadow in the Kimberleys. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 316 p.
Johnson, E.N. 1940, The Serrated Points of Central California. American Antiquity, 6(2): 167-170. doi:10.2307/275836
Kaberry, P. 1939, Aboriginal Woman: Sacred and Profane. George Routledge and Sons Ltd, London, 352 p.
Loendorf, C., Oliver, T.J., Tiedens, S., Plumlee, R.S., Woodson, M.K. & Simon, L. 2015, Flaked-stone projectile point serration: A controlled experimental study of blade margin design. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 3: 437-443. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.07.002
Lommel, A. 1997, The Unambal: A Tribe in Northwest Australia (Translated by Ian Campbell). Takarakka Nowan Kas Publications, Carnarvon Gorge, Queensland, 122 p.
Love, J.R.B. 2009, Stone-Age Bushmen of Today: Life and Adventure Among a Tribe of Savages in North-Western Australia (Originally published 1936) (Compile by Welch, D.). Blackie & Son, London, 200 p.
Maloney, T.R. 2015, Technological Organisation and Points in the Southern Kimberley. Ph.D. thesis at the Department of Archaeology and Natural History, Australian National University, Canberra, 351 p.
Maloney, T.R. 2019, Towards Quantifying Teaching and Learning in Prehistory Using Stone Artifact Reduction Sequences. Lithic Technology, 44(1): 36-51. doi:10.1080/01977261.2018.1564855
Maloney, T.R., O'Connor, S. & Balme, J. 2014, New dates for point technology in the Kimberley. Archaeology in Oceania, 49(3): 137-147. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24026288
Maloney, T.R., O’Connor, S. & Balme, J. 2017a, The effect of retouch intensity on mid to late Holocene unifacial and bifacial points from the Kimberley. Australian Archaeology, 83(1-2): 42-55. doi:10.1080/03122417.2017.1350345
Maloney, T., Dilkes-Hall, I.E. & Davis, J. 2017b, Indigenous led archaeological excavation at Moonggaroonggoo, Gooniyandi country, Western Australia, reveals late Holocene occupation. Australian Archaeology, 83(3): 178-184. doi:10.1080/03122417.2017.1393906
Mitchell, S.R. 1949, Stone-Age Craftsmen: Stone Tools and Camping Places of the Australian Aborigines. Tait Book Co., Melbourne, 211 p.
Moore, M.W. 2015, Bifacial Flintknapping in the Northwest Kimberley, Western Australia. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 22(3): 913-951. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43654205
Nelson, N.C. 1916, Flint Working by Ishi. In: Holmes Anniversary Volume: Anthropological Essays Presented to William Henry Holmes in Honor of His Seventieth Birthday, December 1, 1916. (Hodge, F.W. Ed.), AMS Press, New York: p. 397-402.
Patterson, L.W. 1998, Raking Lithic retouch. Lithic Technology, 23(1): 27-30. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23273200
Petri, H. 2011 (1954), The Dying World in Northwest Australia (Translated by Ian Campbell). Kulturgeschichtliche Forschungen (Munich, Germany); Vol. 05. Hesperian Press, Carlisle, W.A., 276 p.
Plew, M.G. & Woods., J.C. 1985, Observation of edge damage and technological effect on pressure-flaked stone tools. In: Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crabtree. (Plew, M.G., Woods, J.C. & Pavesic, M.G., Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 211-227.
Redmond, A. 2012, Tracking Wurnan: Transformations in the trade and exchange of resources in the northern Kimberley. In: Indigenous Participation in Australian Economies II: Historical Engagements and Current Enterprises. (Fijn, N., Keen, I., Lloyd, C. & Pickering, M., Eds.), ANU E Press, Canberra: p. 57-72.
Rots, V., Lentfer, C., Schmid, V.C., Porraz, G. & Conard, N.J. 2017, Pressure flaking to serrate bifacial points for the hunt during the MIS5 at Sibudu Cave (South Africa). PLoS ONE, 12(4):e0175151. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175151
Shott, M.J. 2017, Stage and continuum approaches in prehistoric biface production: A North American perspective. PLoSONE, 12(3):e0170947. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170947
Spencer, B.S. & Gillen, F.J. 1904, The Northern Tribes of Central Australia. Macmillan, London, 784 p.
Spencer, B.S. 1928, Wanderings in Wild Australia. Macmillan, London, 455 p.
Stiener, M.C. 2014, Finding a Common Bandwidth: Causes of Convergence and Diversity in Paleolithic Beads. Biological Theory, 9(1): 51-64. doi.org/10.1007/s13752-013-0157-4
Tindale, N.B. 1965, Stone implement making among the Nakako, Ngadadjara and Pitjandjara of the Western Desert. Records of the South Australian Museum, 15: 131-164.
Tindale, N.B. 1985, Australian Aboriginal techniques of pressure-flaking stone implements: Some personal observations. In: Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honour of Don E. Crabtree, (Plew, M.G., Woods, J.C. & Pavesic, M.G., Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 1-34.
Titmus, G. 1985, Some aspects of stone tool notching. In: Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crabtree. (Plew, M.G., Woods, J.C. & Pavesic, M.G., Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 1-34.
Akerman, K. 1979, Heat and Lithic Technology in the Kimberleys, W. A. Archaeology & Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 14(2): 144-151. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40386342
Akerman, K. 2008, Missing the point or what to believe - the theory of the data: rationales for the production of Kimberley points. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2: 70-79.
Akerman, K. & Bindon, P. 1995, Dentate and related stone biface points from northern Australia. The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory, 12: 89-99.
Akerman, K. & Bindon, P. 1984, The Edge-ground Stone Adze and Modern Counterparts in the Kimberley Region, Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum, 11(4): 357-373.
Akerman, K., Fullagar, R. & van Gijn, A. 2002, Weapons and Wunan: production, function and exchange of Kimberley points. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 1: 14-42.
Akerman, K., & Stanton, J. 1994, Riji and Jakoli: Kimberley pearl shell in Aboriginal Australia. Northern Territory Museum Monograph Series. Vol. 4. Northern Territory Museum, Darwin, 73 p.
Andrefsky, W.J. 1994, Raw-Material Availability and the Organization of Technology. American Antiquity, 59(1): 21-34. doi:10.2307/3085499
Balfour, H.R. 1903, On the methods employed by the natives of N.W. Australia in the manufacture of glass spear heads. Man, 1(5): 65. doi:10.2307/2839799
Balfour, H.R. 1951, A native tool kit from the Kimberley district, Western Australia. Mankind, 4(7): 273-274. doi:10.1111/j.1835-9310.1951.tb00250.x
Basedow, H. 1925, The Australian Aboriginal. F.W. Preece and Sons, Adelaide, 422 p.
Blundell, V.J. 1975, Aboriginal Adaptation in Northwest Australia. PhD at the Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1642 p.
Blundell, V.J. & Woolagoodj, D. 2005, Keeping The Wandjinas Fresh. Freemantle Press, Perth, 293 p.
Carr, C. 1995, A Unified Middle-Range Theory of Artifact Design. In: Style, Society, and Person: Archaeological and Ethnological Perspectives, (Carr, C.N., J., Ed.), Plenum Press., New York: p. 171-258.
Clarkson, C. 2002, An index of invasiveness for the measurement of unifacial and bifacial retouch: a theoretical, experimental and archaeological verification. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29: 65-75. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0702
Clarkson, C. 2007, Lithics in the Land of the Lightning Brothers: The Archaeology of Wardaman Country, Northern Territory. Vol. 25. Terra Australis. ANU Press, 222 p. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24hb95
Crabtree, D.E. 1966, A stoneworker's approach to analyzing and replicating the Lindenmeier Folsom. Tebiwa, 9(1): 3-39.
Crabtree, D.E. 1973, Experiments in replicating Hohokam points. Tebiwa, 16(1): 10-45.
Crawford, I.M. 1968, The Art of the Wandjina. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 144 p.
Davidson, D.S. 1935, Archaeological Problems of Northern Australia. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 65: 145-183. doi:10.2307/2843847
Davidson, D.S. & McCarthy, F.D. 1957, The Distribution and Chronology of Some Important Types of Stone Implements in Western Australia. Anthropos, 52(3/4): 390-458. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40454078
Elkin, A.P. 1948, Pressure Flaking in the Northern Kimberley, Australia. Man, 48: 110-113. doi:10.2307/2791788
Falkenberg, F. 1968, Spyd og kastetraer fra murinbataene i Nord-Australia. In: Spyd og kastetraer fra murinbataene i Nord-Australia, University of Oslo Ethnographic Museum Yearbook, Oslo, p. 15-38.
Gould, R.A. 1980, Living Archaeology. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 270 p.
Harrison, R. 2002, Archaeology and the colonial encounter: Kimberley spear points, cultural identity and masculinity in the north of Australia. Journal of Social Archaeology, 2: 352-377. doi:10.1177/146960530200200304
Harrison, R. 2004, Kimberley Points and Colonial Preference: New Insights into the Chronology of Pressure Flaked Point Forms from the Southeast Kimberley, Western Australia. Archaeology in Oceania, 39(1): 1-11. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.2004.tb00552.x
Harrison, R. 2006, An Artefact of Colonial Desire? Kimberley Points and the Technologies of Enchantment Current Anthropology, 47(1): 63-88. doi:10.1086/497673
Haury, E.W. 1976, The Hohokam: desert farmers and craftsmen - excavations at Snaketown. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, Arizona, 424 p.
Hiscock, P. & Maloney, T. 2017, Australian lithic technology: evolution, dispersion and connectivity. In: Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalisation, (Hodos, T., Ed.), Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, p. 301-318.
Hoffman, C.M. 1997, Alliance Formation and Social Interaction During the Sedentary Period: A Stylistic Analysis of Hohokam Arrowpoints. Ph.D. thesis at the Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Arizona, 1328 p.
Högberg, A. & Lombard, M. 2016, Indications of pressure flaking more than 70 thousand years ago at umhlatuzana rock shelter. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 71(203): 53-59. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24894827
Hunter, P. 2014. Investigating the History of Bandicoot Bay through Glass Artefacts (Poster). presented at the AAA/ASHA Annual Conference. Cairns, Australia, 1-3 December.
Indriess, I. 1937, Over the Range: Sunshine and Shadow in the Kimberleys. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 316 p.
Johnson, E.N. 1940, The Serrated Points of Central California. American Antiquity, 6(2): 167-170. doi:10.2307/275836
Kaberry, P. 1939, Aboriginal Woman: Sacred and Profane. George Routledge and Sons Ltd, London, 352 p.
Loendorf, C., Oliver, T.J., Tiedens, S., Plumlee, R.S., Woodson, M.K. & Simon, L. 2015, Flaked-stone projectile point serration: A controlled experimental study of blade margin design. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 3: 437-443. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.07.002
Lommel, A. 1997, The Unambal: A Tribe in Northwest Australia (Translated by Ian Campbell). Takarakka Nowan Kas Publications, Carnarvon Gorge, Queensland, 122 p.
Love, J.R.B. 2009, Stone-Age Bushmen of Today: Life and Adventure Among a Tribe of Savages in North-Western Australia (Originally published 1936) (Compile by Welch, D.). Blackie & Son, London, 200 p.
Maloney, T.R. 2015, Technological Organisation and Points in the Southern Kimberley. Ph.D. thesis at the Department of Archaeology and Natural History, Australian National University, Canberra, 351 p.
Maloney, T.R. 2019, Towards Quantifying Teaching and Learning in Prehistory Using Stone Artifact Reduction Sequences. Lithic Technology, 44(1): 36-51. doi:10.1080/01977261.2018.1564855
Maloney, T.R., O'Connor, S. & Balme, J. 2014, New dates for point technology in the Kimberley. Archaeology in Oceania, 49(3): 137-147. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24026288
Maloney, T.R., O’Connor, S. & Balme, J. 2017a, The effect of retouch intensity on mid to late Holocene unifacial and bifacial points from the Kimberley. Australian Archaeology, 83(1-2): 42-55. doi:10.1080/03122417.2017.1350345
Maloney, T., Dilkes-Hall, I.E. & Davis, J. 2017b, Indigenous led archaeological excavation at Moonggaroonggoo, Gooniyandi country, Western Australia, reveals late Holocene occupation. Australian Archaeology, 83(3): 178-184. doi:10.1080/03122417.2017.1393906
Mitchell, S.R. 1949, Stone-Age Craftsmen: Stone Tools and Camping Places of the Australian Aborigines. Tait Book Co., Melbourne, 211 p.
Moore, M.W. 2015, Bifacial Flintknapping in the Northwest Kimberley, Western Australia. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 22(3): 913-951. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43654205
Nelson, N.C. 1916, Flint Working by Ishi. In: Holmes Anniversary Volume: Anthropological Essays Presented to William Henry Holmes in Honor of His Seventieth Birthday, December 1, 1916. (Hodge, F.W. Ed.), AMS Press, New York: p. 397-402.
Patterson, L.W. 1998, Raking Lithic retouch. Lithic Technology, 23(1): 27-30. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23273200
Petri, H. 2011 (1954), The Dying World in Northwest Australia (Translated by Ian Campbell). Kulturgeschichtliche Forschungen (Munich, Germany); Vol. 05. Hesperian Press, Carlisle, W.A., 276 p.
Plew, M.G. & Woods., J.C. 1985, Observation of edge damage and technological effect on pressure-flaked stone tools. In: Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crabtree. (Plew, M.G., Woods, J.C. & Pavesic, M.G., Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 211-227.
Redmond, A. 2012, Tracking Wurnan: Transformations in the trade and exchange of resources in the northern Kimberley. In: Indigenous Participation in Australian Economies II: Historical Engagements and Current Enterprises. (Fijn, N., Keen, I., Lloyd, C. & Pickering, M., Eds.), ANU E Press, Canberra: p. 57-72.
Rots, V., Lentfer, C., Schmid, V.C., Porraz, G. & Conard, N.J. 2017, Pressure flaking to serrate bifacial points for the hunt during the MIS5 at Sibudu Cave (South Africa). PLoS ONE, 12(4):e0175151. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175151
Shott, M.J. 2017, Stage and continuum approaches in prehistoric biface production: A North American perspective. PLoSONE, 12(3):e0170947. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170947
Spencer, B.S. & Gillen, F.J. 1904, The Northern Tribes of Central Australia. Macmillan, London, 784 p.
Spencer, B.S. 1928, Wanderings in Wild Australia. Macmillan, London, 455 p.
Stiener, M.C. 2014, Finding a Common Bandwidth: Causes of Convergence and Diversity in Paleolithic Beads. Biological Theory, 9(1): 51-64. doi.org/10.1007/s13752-013-0157-4
Tindale, N.B. 1965, Stone implement making among the Nakako, Ngadadjara and Pitjandjara of the Western Desert. Records of the South Australian Museum, 15: 131-164.
Tindale, N.B. 1985, Australian Aboriginal techniques of pressure-flaking stone implements: Some personal observations. In: Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honour of Don E. Crabtree, (Plew, M.G., Woods, J.C. & Pavesic, M.G., Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 1-34.
Titmus, G. 1985, Some aspects of stone tool notching. In: Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crabtree. (Plew, M.G., Woods, J.C. & Pavesic, M.G., Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 1-34.
Published
15-Mar-2020
How to Cite
Maloney, T. (2020). Kimberley points of Western Australia: Pressure flaking, projections and prestige. Journal of Lithic Studies, 7(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.2968
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