What lies in between: Levallois, discoid and intermediate methods
Keywords:
lithic technology; experimental archaeology; Levallois; discoid; Middle Palaeolithic; machine learning
Abstract
Lithic artefacts are usually associated with the different knapping methods used in their production. Flakes exhibit metric and technological features representative of the flaking method used to detach them. However, lithic production is a dynamic process in which discrete methods can be blurred, and in which features can vary throughout the process. An intermediate knapping method between the discoid and Levallois is commonly referred to under an umbrella of terms (the present research uses the term hierarchical discoid), and is associated with a broad geographical and chronological distribution throughout the Early and Middle Palaeolithic. This intermediate knapping strategy exhibits features of both the discoid and Levallois knapping methods, raising the question of the extent to which flakes from the three knapping methods can be differentiated and, when one is mistaken for another, the direction of confusion. An experimental assemblage of flakes detached by means of the three methods was used along with an attribute analysis and machine learning models in an effort to identify the knapping methods employed. In general, our results were able to very effectively differentiate between the three knapping methods when a support vector machine with polynomial kernel was used. Our results also underscored the singularity of flakes detached by means of Levallois reduction sequences, which yielded outstanding identification values, and were rarely erroneously attributed to either of the other two knapping methods studied. Mistaking the products of the discoid and hierarchical discoid methods was the most common direction of confusion, although a good identification value was achieved for discoid flakes and an acceptable value for hierarchical discoid flakes. This shows the potential applicability of machine learning models in combination with attribute analysis for the identification of these knapping methods among flakes.
References
Andrefsky, W. 2005, Lithics Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis (Second ed.). Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 326 p.
Archer, W., Djakovic, I., Brenet, M., Bourguignon, L., Presnyakova, D., Schlager, S., Soressi, M. & McPherron, S.P. 2021, Quantifying differences in hominin flaking technologies with 3D shape analysis. Journal of Human Evolution, 150: 102912. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102912
Baena, J., Carrión, E., Ruiz, B., Ellwood, B., Sesé, C., Yravedra, J., Jordá, J., Uzquiano, P., Velázquez, R., Manzano, I., Sanchez-Marco, A. & Hernández, F. 2005, Paleoecología y comportamiento humano durante el Pleistoceno Superior en la comarca de Liébana: La secuencia de la Cueva de El Esquilleu (Occidente de Cantabria, España). In: Neandertales Cantábricos. Estado de la Cuestión (Montes Barquín, R., Ed.), Monografías Vol. 20, Museo de Altamira, Santander: p. 461-487. (in Spanish) (“Paleoecology and human behavior during the Late Pleistocene in the Liébana region: The El Esquilleu Cave sequence (Western Cantabria, Spain)”). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10261/3133
Bagolini, B. 1968, Ricerche sulle dimensioni dei manufatti litici preistorici non ritoccati, Annali dell’Università di Ferrara: nuova serie, 1(10): 195-219 (“Research on the dimensions of unretouched prehistoric lithic artifacts”).
Bergmeir, C. & Benítez, J.M. 2012, Neural Networks in R using the Stuttgart Neural Network Simulator: RSNNS, Journal of Statistical Software, 46(7): 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v046.i07
Bisson, M.S. 2000, Nineteenth Century Tools for Twenty-First Century Archaeology? Why the Middle Paleolithic Typology of François Bordes Must Be Replaced, Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 7(1): 1-48. DOI: https://doi.org/1072-5369/00/0300-0001 $18.00/0
Boëda, E. 1990, De la surface au volume. Analyse des concetions des débitages Levallois et laminaire. In: Paleolithique moyen recent et Paleolithique superieur ancien en Europe. Ruptures et transitions: examen critique des documents archéologiques (Farizy, C., Ed.), Mémoires du Musée de Préhistoire d'Ile-de-France Vol. 3, A.P.R.A.I.F., Nemours: p. 63-68. (in French) (“From surface to volume. Analysis of Levallois and laminar debitage designs”)
Boëda, E. 1993, Le débitage discoïde et le débitage Levallois récurrent centripède. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 90(6): 392-404. (in French) (“Discoid debitage and recurrent centriped Levallois debitage”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1993.9669
Boëda, E. 1994, Le concept Levallois: variabilité des méthodes. Vol. 9. CNRS éditions. CNRS, Paris, 280 p. (“The Levallois concept: variability of methods”)
Boëda, E. 1995a, Caractéristiques techniques des chaînes opératoires lithiques des niveaux micoquiens de Külna (Tchécoslovaquie). Paléo, 1: 57-72. (in French) (“Technical characteristics of the lithic operative chaine from the micoquian levels of Külna (Czechslovaquia)”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1995.1380
Boëda, E. 1995b, Levallois: A Volumetric Construction, Methods, A Technique. In: The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin: p. 41-68.
Boëda, E., Geneste, J.-M. & Meignen, L. 1990, Identification de chaînes opératoires lithiques du Paléolithique ancien et moyen. Paléo, 2: 43-80. (in French) (“Identification of lithic operating chains from the Early and Middle Palaeolithic”)
Bordes, F. 1953, Essai de Classification des industries « moustériennes », Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, 50(7): 457-466. (in French) (“Classification essay of “Mousterian” industries”)DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1953.5156
Bordes, F. 1961a, Mousterian Cultures in France. Science, 134(3482): 803-810.
Bordes, F. 1961b, Typologie du Paléolithique ancien et moyen, Bordeaux, CNRS Editions., 209 p. (in French) (“Typology of the Early and Middle Palaeolithic”)
Bourguignon, L. 1996, La conception du debitage Quina. Quaternaria Nova, 6: 149-166. (in French) (“The design of Quina debitage”)
Bourguignon, L. 1997, Le Moustérien de type Quina: Nouvelle Définition d'une entité technique. Doctoral thesis at the Université de Paris X - Nanterre, Nanterre, 672 p. (“The Quina-type Mousterian: New Definition of a Technical Entity”)
Bourguignon, L. & Turq, A. 2003, Une chaîne opératoire de débitage discoïde sur éclat du Moustérien à denticulés aquitain: les exemples de Champ Bossuet et de Combre Grenal c.14. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Oxford: p. 131-152. (“An operating chain of discoid debitage on flake from the Aquitaine denticulate Mousterian: the examples of Champ Bossuet and Combre Grenal c.14”)
Bradley, A.P. 1997, The use of the area under the ROC curve in the evaluation of machine learning algorithms. Pattern recognition, 30(7): 1145-1159.
Breiman, L. 2001, Random Forests. Machine Learning, 45(1): 5-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324
Carmignani, L., Moncel, M.-H., Fernandes, P. & Wilson, L. 2017, Technological variability during the Early Middle Palaeolithic in Western Europe. Reduction systems and predetermined products at the Bau de l'Aubesier and Payre (South-East France). PLoS ONE, 12(6): e0178550. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178550
Casanova i Martí, J., Martínez Moreno, J., Mora Torcal, R. & de la Torre, I. 2009, Stratégies techniques dans le Paléolithique Moyen du sud-est des Pyrénées. L'Anthropologie, 113: 313-340. (in French) (“Technical strategies in the Middle Palaeolithic of the south-east of the Pyrenees”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anthro.2009.04.004
Casanova i Martí, J., Roda Gilabert, X., Martínez-Moreno, J. & Mora, R. 2014, Débitage, façonnage et diversité des systèmes techniques du Moustérien à Tragó (Pré-Pyrénées de Lleida, Catalogne). In: Transitions, ruptures et continuité en Préhistoire Vol. 2 Paléolithique et Mésolithique (Jaubert, J., Fourment, N. & Depaepe, P., Eds.), Société Préhistorique Française, Paris: p. 139-154. (in French) (“Debitage, shaping and diversity of Mousterian technical systems in Tragó (Pre-Pyrenees of Lleida, Catalonia)”)
Clarkson, C. 2007, Lithics in the Land of the Lightning Brothers: The Archaeology of Wardaman Country, Northern Territory. Terra australis Vol. 25. The Australian National University Press, Canberra, 221 p. URL: http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/33695
Cortes, C. & Vapnik, V. 1995, Support-vector networks. Machine learning, 20(3): 273-297.
Cotterell, B. & Kamminga, J. 1987, The Formation of Flakes. American Antiquity, 52(4): 675-708.
Cover, T. & Hart, P. 1967, Nearest neighbor pattern classification. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 13(1): 21-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TIT.1967.1053964
Cramer, J.S. 2004, The early origins of the logit model. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 35(4): 613-626. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2004.09.003
Davis, Z.J. & Shea, J.J. 1998, Quantifying lithic curation: An experimental test of Dibble and Pelcin's original flake-tool mass predictor. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25(7): 603-610.
Debénath, A. & Dibble, H.L. 1994, Handbook of Paleolithic Typology, Vol. 1. University of Pennsylvania Press, Pennsylvania 256 p.
Delagnes, A. 1995, Variability within Uniformity: Three Levels of Variability within the Levallois System. In: The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin: p. 201-211.
Delagnes, A., Jaubert, J. & Meignen, L. 2007, Les technocomplexes du paléolithique moyen en Europe occidentale dans leur cadre diachronique et géographique. In: Les Neandertaliens. Biologie et Cultures (Vandermeersch, B. & Maureille, B., Eds.), Documents préhistoriques Vol. 23, Editions du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques, Paris: p. 213-229. (in French) (“Middle Palaeolithic technocomplexes in Western Europe in their diachronic and geographical setting”)
Delagnes, A. & Meignen, L. 2006, Diversity of Lithic Production Systems During the Middle Paleolithic in France. Are There Any Chronological Trends? In: Transitions Before the Transition Evolution and Stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age (Hovers, E. & Kuhn, S.L., Eds.), Springer: p. 85-107.
Dibble, H.L. 1989, The Implications of Stone Tool Types for the Presence of Language During the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic. In: The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modem Humans (Mellars, P. & Stringer, C., Eds.), Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh: p. 415-432.
Dibble, H.L. 1995, Biache Saint-Vaast, Level IIA: A comparison of analytical approaches. In: The definition and interpretation of Levallois technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press: p. 93-116.
Dibble, H.L. & Pelcin, A. 1995, The Effect of Hammer Mass and Velocity on Flake Mass. Journal of Archaeological Science, 22(3): 429-439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1995.0042
Driscoll, K. & García-Rojas, M. 2014, Their lips are sealed: identifying hard stone, soft stone, and antler hammer direct percussion in Palaeolithic prismatic blade production. Journal of Archaeological Science, 47: 134-141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.008
Eren, M.I., Greenspan, A. & Garth Sampson, C. 2008, Are Upper Paleolithic blade cores more productive than Middle Paleolithic discoidal cores? A replication experiment. Journal of Human Evolution, 55: 952-961. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.009
Eren, M.I. & Lycett, S.J. 2012, Why Levallois? A Morphometric Comparison of Experimental ‘Preferential’ Levallois Flakes versus Debitage Flakes. PLoS ONE, 7(1): e29273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029273
Faivre, G.-P., Gravina, B., Bourguignon, L., Discamps, E. & Turq, A. 2017, Late Middle Palaeolithic lithic technocomplexes (MIS 5-3) in the northeastern Aquitaine Basin: Advances and challenges. Quaternary International, 433: 116-131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.060
Fisher, R.A. 1936, The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems. Annals of Eugenics, 7: 179-188.
Forestier, H. 1993, Le Clactonien: mise en application d'une nouvelle méthode de débitage s'inscrivant dans la variabilité des systèmes de production lithique du Paléolithique ancien. Paléo, 5(1): 53-82. (in French) (“The Clactonian: application of a new method of debitage within the variability of the lithic production systems of the early Paleolithic”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1993.1104
Frey, P.W. & Slate, D.J. 1991, Letter recognition using Holland-style adaptive classifiers. Machine learning, 6(2): 161-182.
Friedman, J.H. 2001, Greedy function approximation: a gradient boosting machine. Annals of statistics, 29(5): 1189-1232.
Friedman, J.H. 2002, Stochastic gradient boosting. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 38(4): 367-378. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-9473(01)00065-2
Geneste, J.-M. 1990, Développement des systèmes de production lithique au cours du Paléolithique moyen en Aquitaine septentrionale, In: Paléolithique Moyen Récent et Paléolithique Supérieur Ancien en Europe (C. Farizy, Ed.), Mémoires du Musée de Préhistoire d’Ile-de-France., Nemours, APRAIF: p. 203-214. (“Development of lithic production systems along the Middle Paleolithic at septentrional Aquitania”)
González-Molina, I., Jiménez-García, B., Maíllo-Fernández, J.-M., Baquedano, E. & Domínguez-Rodrigo, M. 2020, Distinguishing Discoid and Centripetal Levallois methods through machine learning. PLOS ONE, 15(12): e0244288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244288
Greenwell, B., Boehmke, B., Cunningham, J., Developers, G.B.M. & Greenwell, M.B. 2019, Package ‘gbm’. R package version, 2(5). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gbm
Grimaldi, S. & Santaniello, F. 2014, New insights into Final Mousterian lithic production in western Italy. Quaternary International, 350: 116-129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.03.057
Hand, D.J. & Till, R.J. 2001, A simple generalisation of the area under the ROC curve for multiple class classification problems. Machine learning, 45(2): 171-186. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010920819831
Hérisson, D., Brenet, M., Cliquet, D., Moncel, M.-H., Richter, J., Scott, B., Van Baelen, A., Di Modica, K., De Loecker, D., Ashton, N., Bourguignon, L., Delagnes, A., Faivre, J.-P., Folgado-Lopez, M., Locht, J.-L., Pope, M., Raynal, J.-P., Roebroeks, W., Santagata, C., Turq, A. & Van Peer, P. 2016, The emergence of the Middle Palaeolithic in north-western Europe and its southern fringes, Quaternary International, 411: 233-283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.049
Hiscock, P. 2002, Quantifying the Size of Artefact Assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29: 251-258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0705
Hovers, E. 2009, The lithic assemblages of Qafzeh Cave. Human Evolution Series. Oxford University Press, New York, 320 p.
James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T. & Tibshirani, R. 2013, An Introduction to Statistical Learning with Applications in R. Springer, New York, 607 p.
Jaubert, J. 1993, Le gisement paléolithique moyen de Mauran (Haute-Garonne): techno-économie des industries lithiques. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 90(5): 328-335. (in French) (“The Middle paleolithic site of Mauran (Haute-Garonne): techno-ecnomy of the lithic industries”). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1993.9642
Karatzoglou, A., Meyer, D. & Hornik, K. 2006, Support Vector Machines in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 15: 1-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v015.i09
Karatzoglou, A., Smola, A., Hornik, K. & Zeileis, A. 2004, kernlab - An S4 Package for Kernel Methods in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 11: 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v011.i09
Kelly, H. 1954, Contribution à l'étude de la technique de la taille levalloisienne. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 51(3-4): 149-169. (in French) (“Contribution to the study of the Levalloisian knapping technique”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1954.3077
Kuhn, M. 2008, Building Predictive Models in R using the caret Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 28(5): 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v028.i05
Kuhn, S.L. 2013, Roots of the Middle Paleolithic in Eurasia. Current Anthropology, 54(S8): S255-S268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/673529
Lantz, B. 2019, Machine learning with R: expert techniques for predictive modeling. Packt publishing ltd, Birmingham, 375 p.
Laplace, G. 1968, Recherches de typologie analytique 1968. Origini, 2: 7-64. (in French) (“Analytical Typology Research 1968”)
Lenoir, M. & Turq, A. 1995, Recurrent Centripetal Debitage (Levallois and Discoidal): Continuity or Discontinuity? In: The definition and interpretation of Levallois Technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin: p. 249-256.
Locht, J.-L. 2003, L'industrie lithique du gisement de Beauvais (Oise, France): objectifs et variabilité du débitage discoïde. In: Discoid Lithic Technology: Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 193-209. (in French) (“The lithic industry of the Beauvais deposit (Oise, France): objectives and variability of discoid debitage”)
de Lombera-Hermida, A., Rodríguez-Álvarez, X.P., Mosquera, M., Ollé, A., García-Medrano, P., Pedergnana, A., Terradillos-Bernal, M., López-Ortega, E., Bargalló, A., Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A., Saladié, P., Bermúdez de Castro, J.M. & Carbonell, E. 2020, The dawn of the Middle Paleolithic in Atapuerca: the lithic assemblage of TD10.1 from Gran Dolina. Journal of Human Evolution, 145: 102812. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102812
Marciani, G., Ronchitelli, A., Arrighi, S., Badino, F., Bortolini, E., Boscato, P., Boschin, F., Crezzini, J., Delpiano, D., Falcucci, A., Figus, C., Lugli, F., Oxilia, G., Romandini, M., Riel-Salvatore, J., Negrino, F., Peresani, M., Spinapolice, E.E., Moroni, A. & Benazzi, S. 2020, Lithic techno-complexes in Italy from 50 to 39 thousand years BP: An overview of lithic technological changes across the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic boundary. Quaternary International, 551: 123-149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.11.005
Marwick, B. 2008, What attributes are important for the measurement of assemblage reduction intensity? Results from an experimental stone artefact assemblage with relevance to the Hoabinhian of mainland Southeast Asia. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(5): 1189-1200. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2007.08.007
Moncel, M.-H., Ashton, N., Arzarello, M., Fontana, F., Lamotte, A., Scott, B., Muttillo, B., Berruti, G., Nenzioni, G. & Tuffreau, A. 2020, Early Levallois core technology between marine isotope stage 12 and 9 in Western Europe. Journal of human evolution, 139: 102735. DOI: https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.102735
Mortillet, G. de 1885, Le Préhistorique. Antiquité de L’Homme, Deuxième Édition., París, Bibliothèque des Sciences Contemporaines., 658 p. (in French) (“The Prehistoric. Antiquity of Man, Second Edition”).
Mourre, V. 2003, Discoïde ou pas Discoïde? Réflexions sur la pertinence des critères techniques définissant le débitage discoïde. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 1-17. (in French) (“Discoid or not Discoid? Reflections on the relevance of the technical criteria defining discoid debitage”)
Muller, A. & Clarkson, C. 2016, A new method for accurately and precisely measuring flake platform area. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 8: 178-186. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.06.015
Newcomer, M.H. & Hivernel-Guerre, F. 1974, Nucléus sur éclat: technologie et utilisation par différentes cultures préhistoriques. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 71(4): 119-128. (in French) (“Cores on flake: technology and use by different prehistoric cultures”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1974.8308
Ohel, M.Y., Bhattacharya, D.K., Bordes, F., Cahen, D., Callow, P., Collins, D., Katz, P.R., Narr, K.J., Newcomer, M.H., Pappu, R.S., Roe, D.A., Singer, R. & Wymer, J.J. 1979, The Clactonian: An Independent Complex or an Integral Part of the Acheulean? [and Comments and Reply]. Current Anthropology, 20(4): 685-726.
Pelegrin, J. 2009, Cognition and the emergence of language: a contribution from lithic technology. In: Cognitive Archaeology and Human Evolution (de Beaune, S.A., Coolidge, F.L. & Wynn, T., Eds.), Cambridge University Press, New York: p. 95-108.
Peresani, M. 1998, La variabilité du débitage discoïde dans la grotte de Fumane (Italie du Nord). Paléo, 10: 123-146. (in French) (“The variability of discoid production at the grotte de Fumane”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1998.1133
Peresani, M. 2003, An initial overview of the Middle Palaeolithic discoid industries in Central-Northern Italy. In: Discoid Lithic Technology: Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 209-224.
Perpère, M. 1986, Apport de la typométrie à la définition des éclats Levallois : l'exemple d'Ault. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 83(4): 115-118. (in French) (“Contribution of typometry to the definition of Levallois flakes: the example of Ault”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1986.8743
Perpère, M. 1989, Les frontiéres du débitage Levallois: typométrie des éclats. L'Anthropologie, 95(4): 837-850. (in French) (“The boundaries of Levallois debitage: typometry of flakes”)
Quinlan, J.R. 1996, Improved Use of Continuous Attributes in C4.5. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 4: 77-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1613/jair.279
Quinlan, J.R. 2014, C4. 5: programs for machine learning. Elsevier, Saint Louis, 302 p.
Révillon, S. & Tuffreau, A. 1994, Introduction, In: Les industries laminaires au Paléolithique moyen (S. Révillon & A. Tuffreau, Eds.), Dossier De Documentation Archéologique., Paris, CNRS Editions: p. 11-17. (in French) (“Laminar industries in the Middle Paleolithic”)
Ridgeway, G. 2007, Generalized Boosted Models: A guide to the gbm package. R package vignette: 2007. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gbm
Ríos-Garaizar, J. 2017, A new chronological and technological synthesis for Late Middle Paleolithic of the Eastern Cantabrian Region. Quaternary International, 433: 50-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.020
Robin, X., Turck, N., Hainard, A., Tiberti, N., Lisacek, F., Sanchez, J.-C. & Müller, M. 2011, pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves, BMC bioinformatics, 12(1): 1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-12-77
Rosenberg-Yefet, T., Shemer, M. & Barkai, R. 2022, Lower Paleolithic Winds of Change: Prepared Core Technologies and the Onset of the Levallois Method in the Levantine Late Acheulian, Frontiers in Earth Science, 10: 847358. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.847358
Rumelhart, D.E., Hinton, G.E. & Williams, R.J. 1986, Learning representations by back-propagating errors. Nature, 323(6088): 533-536.
Santonja, M., Pérez-González, A., Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Panera, J., Rubio-Jara, S., Sesé, C., Soto, E., Arnold, L.J., Duval, M., Demuro, M., Ortiz, J.E., de Torres, T., Mercier, N., Barba, R. & Yravedra, J. 2014, The Middle Paleolithic site of Cuesta de la Bajada (Teruel, Spain): a perspective on the Acheulean and Middle Paleolithic technocomplexes in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 49: 556-571. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.06.003
Santonja, M., Pérez-González, A., Panera, J., Rubio-Jara, S. & Méndez-Quintas, E. 2016, The coexistence of Acheulean and Ancient Middle Palaeolithic techno-complexes in the Middle Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula, Quaternary International, 411: 367-377. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.056
Scott, B. & Ashton, N. 2011, The early middle Palaeolithic: the European context, In: The ancient human occupation of Britain (N. Ashton, S. Lewis & C. Stringer, Eds.), Developments in Quaternary Science., Oxford, Elsevier: p. 91-112.
Shott, M.J. & Seeman, M.F. 2017, Use and multifactorial reconciliation of uniface reduction measures: A pilot study at the Nobles Pond Paleoindian site. American Antiquity, 82(4): 723-741. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2017.40
Slimak, L. 1998, La variabilité des débitages discoïdes au Paléolithique moyen: diversité des méthodes et unité d'un concept. L'exemple des gisements de la Baume Néron (Soyons, Ardèche) et du Champ Grand (Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire, Loire). Préhistoire Anthropologie Méditerranéennes, 7: 75-88. (in French) (“The variability of discoid debitages in the Middle Palaeolithic: diversity of methods and unity of a concept. The example of the deposits of Baume Néron (Soyons, Ardèche) and Champ Grand (Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire, Loire)”)
Slimak, L. 2003, Les Debitages discoïdes mousteriens: evaluation d'un concept technologique. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications Vol. 1120 (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 33-65. (in French) (“Mousterian discoid debitages: evaluation of a technological concept”)
Soressi, M. & Geneste, J.-M. 2011, The History and Efficacy of the Chaîne Opératoire Approach to Lithic Analysis: Studying Techniques to Reveal Past Societies in an Evolutionary Perspective. PaleoAnthropology, 2011: 334-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4207/PA.2011.ART63
Soriano, S. & Villa, P. 2017, Early Levallois and the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic in central Italy. PLOS ONE, 12(10): e0186082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186082
Team, R. (2019). RStudio: Integrated Development for R (Version 1.2.5019). Boston, MA: RStudio, Inc. url: http://www.rstudio.com
R Core Team 2019, R: A language and environment for statistical computing. https://cran.r-project.org/bin/windows/base/
Terradas, X. 2003, Discoid flaking method: conception and technological variability. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 19-32.
Thiébaut, C. 2013, Discoid debitage stricto sensu: a method adapted to highly mobile Middle Paleolithic groups? P@lethnology, Varia(5): 18p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/palethnologie.580
Tixier, J. & Turq, A. 1999, Kombewa et alii. Paléo, 11: 135-143. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1999.1174
de la Torre, I., Mora, R., Domı́nguez-Rodrigo, M., de Luque, L. & Alcalá, L. 2003, The Oldowan industry of Peninj and its bearing on the reconstruction of the technological skills of LowerPleistocene hominids, Journal of Human Evolution, 44(2): 203-224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(02)00206-3
Venables, W.N. & Ripley, B.D. 2002, Modern applied statistics with S (Fourth Edition ed.). Statistics and Computing. Springer, New York, 495 p.
Walker, S.H. & Duncan, D.B. 1967, Estimation of the Probability of an Event as a Function of Several Independent Variables. Biometrika, 54(1/2): 167 -179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2333860
White, M. & Ashton, N. 2003, Lower Palaeolithic Core Technology and the Origins of the Levallois Method in North-Western Europe, Current Anthropology, 44(4): 598-609.
Wickham, H., Averick, M., Bryan, J., Chang, W., McGowan, L., François, R., Grolemund, G., Hayes, A., Henry, L., Hester, J., Kuhn, M., Pedersen, T., Miller, E., Bache, S., Müller, K., Ooms, J., Robinson, D., Seidel, D., Spinu, V., Takahashi, K., Vaughan, D., Wilke, C., Woo, K. & Yutani, H. 2019, Welcome to the Tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software, 4(43): 1686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686
Wright, M.N. & Ziegler, A. 2017, ranger: A Fast Implementation of Random Forests for High Dimensional Data in C++ and R. Journal of Statistical Software, 77: 1-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v077.i01
Archer, W., Djakovic, I., Brenet, M., Bourguignon, L., Presnyakova, D., Schlager, S., Soressi, M. & McPherron, S.P. 2021, Quantifying differences in hominin flaking technologies with 3D shape analysis. Journal of Human Evolution, 150: 102912. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102912
Baena, J., Carrión, E., Ruiz, B., Ellwood, B., Sesé, C., Yravedra, J., Jordá, J., Uzquiano, P., Velázquez, R., Manzano, I., Sanchez-Marco, A. & Hernández, F. 2005, Paleoecología y comportamiento humano durante el Pleistoceno Superior en la comarca de Liébana: La secuencia de la Cueva de El Esquilleu (Occidente de Cantabria, España). In: Neandertales Cantábricos. Estado de la Cuestión (Montes Barquín, R., Ed.), Monografías Vol. 20, Museo de Altamira, Santander: p. 461-487. (in Spanish) (“Paleoecology and human behavior during the Late Pleistocene in the Liébana region: The El Esquilleu Cave sequence (Western Cantabria, Spain)”). URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10261/3133
Bagolini, B. 1968, Ricerche sulle dimensioni dei manufatti litici preistorici non ritoccati, Annali dell’Università di Ferrara: nuova serie, 1(10): 195-219 (“Research on the dimensions of unretouched prehistoric lithic artifacts”).
Bergmeir, C. & Benítez, J.M. 2012, Neural Networks in R using the Stuttgart Neural Network Simulator: RSNNS, Journal of Statistical Software, 46(7): 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v046.i07
Bisson, M.S. 2000, Nineteenth Century Tools for Twenty-First Century Archaeology? Why the Middle Paleolithic Typology of François Bordes Must Be Replaced, Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 7(1): 1-48. DOI: https://doi.org/1072-5369/00/0300-0001 $18.00/0
Boëda, E. 1990, De la surface au volume. Analyse des concetions des débitages Levallois et laminaire. In: Paleolithique moyen recent et Paleolithique superieur ancien en Europe. Ruptures et transitions: examen critique des documents archéologiques (Farizy, C., Ed.), Mémoires du Musée de Préhistoire d'Ile-de-France Vol. 3, A.P.R.A.I.F., Nemours: p. 63-68. (in French) (“From surface to volume. Analysis of Levallois and laminar debitage designs”)
Boëda, E. 1993, Le débitage discoïde et le débitage Levallois récurrent centripède. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 90(6): 392-404. (in French) (“Discoid debitage and recurrent centriped Levallois debitage”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1993.9669
Boëda, E. 1994, Le concept Levallois: variabilité des méthodes. Vol. 9. CNRS éditions. CNRS, Paris, 280 p. (“The Levallois concept: variability of methods”)
Boëda, E. 1995a, Caractéristiques techniques des chaînes opératoires lithiques des niveaux micoquiens de Külna (Tchécoslovaquie). Paléo, 1: 57-72. (in French) (“Technical characteristics of the lithic operative chaine from the micoquian levels of Külna (Czechslovaquia)”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1995.1380
Boëda, E. 1995b, Levallois: A Volumetric Construction, Methods, A Technique. In: The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin: p. 41-68.
Boëda, E., Geneste, J.-M. & Meignen, L. 1990, Identification de chaînes opératoires lithiques du Paléolithique ancien et moyen. Paléo, 2: 43-80. (in French) (“Identification of lithic operating chains from the Early and Middle Palaeolithic”)
Bordes, F. 1953, Essai de Classification des industries « moustériennes », Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, 50(7): 457-466. (in French) (“Classification essay of “Mousterian” industries”)DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1953.5156
Bordes, F. 1961a, Mousterian Cultures in France. Science, 134(3482): 803-810.
Bordes, F. 1961b, Typologie du Paléolithique ancien et moyen, Bordeaux, CNRS Editions., 209 p. (in French) (“Typology of the Early and Middle Palaeolithic”)
Bourguignon, L. 1996, La conception du debitage Quina. Quaternaria Nova, 6: 149-166. (in French) (“The design of Quina debitage”)
Bourguignon, L. 1997, Le Moustérien de type Quina: Nouvelle Définition d'une entité technique. Doctoral thesis at the Université de Paris X - Nanterre, Nanterre, 672 p. (“The Quina-type Mousterian: New Definition of a Technical Entity”)
Bourguignon, L. & Turq, A. 2003, Une chaîne opératoire de débitage discoïde sur éclat du Moustérien à denticulés aquitain: les exemples de Champ Bossuet et de Combre Grenal c.14. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Oxford: p. 131-152. (“An operating chain of discoid debitage on flake from the Aquitaine denticulate Mousterian: the examples of Champ Bossuet and Combre Grenal c.14”)
Bradley, A.P. 1997, The use of the area under the ROC curve in the evaluation of machine learning algorithms. Pattern recognition, 30(7): 1145-1159.
Breiman, L. 2001, Random Forests. Machine Learning, 45(1): 5-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324
Carmignani, L., Moncel, M.-H., Fernandes, P. & Wilson, L. 2017, Technological variability during the Early Middle Palaeolithic in Western Europe. Reduction systems and predetermined products at the Bau de l'Aubesier and Payre (South-East France). PLoS ONE, 12(6): e0178550. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178550
Casanova i Martí, J., Martínez Moreno, J., Mora Torcal, R. & de la Torre, I. 2009, Stratégies techniques dans le Paléolithique Moyen du sud-est des Pyrénées. L'Anthropologie, 113: 313-340. (in French) (“Technical strategies in the Middle Palaeolithic of the south-east of the Pyrenees”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anthro.2009.04.004
Casanova i Martí, J., Roda Gilabert, X., Martínez-Moreno, J. & Mora, R. 2014, Débitage, façonnage et diversité des systèmes techniques du Moustérien à Tragó (Pré-Pyrénées de Lleida, Catalogne). In: Transitions, ruptures et continuité en Préhistoire Vol. 2 Paléolithique et Mésolithique (Jaubert, J., Fourment, N. & Depaepe, P., Eds.), Société Préhistorique Française, Paris: p. 139-154. (in French) (“Debitage, shaping and diversity of Mousterian technical systems in Tragó (Pre-Pyrenees of Lleida, Catalonia)”)
Clarkson, C. 2007, Lithics in the Land of the Lightning Brothers: The Archaeology of Wardaman Country, Northern Territory. Terra australis Vol. 25. The Australian National University Press, Canberra, 221 p. URL: http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/33695
Cortes, C. & Vapnik, V. 1995, Support-vector networks. Machine learning, 20(3): 273-297.
Cotterell, B. & Kamminga, J. 1987, The Formation of Flakes. American Antiquity, 52(4): 675-708.
Cover, T. & Hart, P. 1967, Nearest neighbor pattern classification. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 13(1): 21-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TIT.1967.1053964
Cramer, J.S. 2004, The early origins of the logit model. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 35(4): 613-626. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2004.09.003
Davis, Z.J. & Shea, J.J. 1998, Quantifying lithic curation: An experimental test of Dibble and Pelcin's original flake-tool mass predictor. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25(7): 603-610.
Debénath, A. & Dibble, H.L. 1994, Handbook of Paleolithic Typology, Vol. 1. University of Pennsylvania Press, Pennsylvania 256 p.
Delagnes, A. 1995, Variability within Uniformity: Three Levels of Variability within the Levallois System. In: The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin: p. 201-211.
Delagnes, A., Jaubert, J. & Meignen, L. 2007, Les technocomplexes du paléolithique moyen en Europe occidentale dans leur cadre diachronique et géographique. In: Les Neandertaliens. Biologie et Cultures (Vandermeersch, B. & Maureille, B., Eds.), Documents préhistoriques Vol. 23, Editions du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques, Paris: p. 213-229. (in French) (“Middle Palaeolithic technocomplexes in Western Europe in their diachronic and geographical setting”)
Delagnes, A. & Meignen, L. 2006, Diversity of Lithic Production Systems During the Middle Paleolithic in France. Are There Any Chronological Trends? In: Transitions Before the Transition Evolution and Stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age (Hovers, E. & Kuhn, S.L., Eds.), Springer: p. 85-107.
Dibble, H.L. 1989, The Implications of Stone Tool Types for the Presence of Language During the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic. In: The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modem Humans (Mellars, P. & Stringer, C., Eds.), Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh: p. 415-432.
Dibble, H.L. 1995, Biache Saint-Vaast, Level IIA: A comparison of analytical approaches. In: The definition and interpretation of Levallois technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press: p. 93-116.
Dibble, H.L. & Pelcin, A. 1995, The Effect of Hammer Mass and Velocity on Flake Mass. Journal of Archaeological Science, 22(3): 429-439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1995.0042
Driscoll, K. & García-Rojas, M. 2014, Their lips are sealed: identifying hard stone, soft stone, and antler hammer direct percussion in Palaeolithic prismatic blade production. Journal of Archaeological Science, 47: 134-141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.008
Eren, M.I., Greenspan, A. & Garth Sampson, C. 2008, Are Upper Paleolithic blade cores more productive than Middle Paleolithic discoidal cores? A replication experiment. Journal of Human Evolution, 55: 952-961. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.009
Eren, M.I. & Lycett, S.J. 2012, Why Levallois? A Morphometric Comparison of Experimental ‘Preferential’ Levallois Flakes versus Debitage Flakes. PLoS ONE, 7(1): e29273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029273
Faivre, G.-P., Gravina, B., Bourguignon, L., Discamps, E. & Turq, A. 2017, Late Middle Palaeolithic lithic technocomplexes (MIS 5-3) in the northeastern Aquitaine Basin: Advances and challenges. Quaternary International, 433: 116-131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.060
Fisher, R.A. 1936, The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems. Annals of Eugenics, 7: 179-188.
Forestier, H. 1993, Le Clactonien: mise en application d'une nouvelle méthode de débitage s'inscrivant dans la variabilité des systèmes de production lithique du Paléolithique ancien. Paléo, 5(1): 53-82. (in French) (“The Clactonian: application of a new method of debitage within the variability of the lithic production systems of the early Paleolithic”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1993.1104
Frey, P.W. & Slate, D.J. 1991, Letter recognition using Holland-style adaptive classifiers. Machine learning, 6(2): 161-182.
Friedman, J.H. 2001, Greedy function approximation: a gradient boosting machine. Annals of statistics, 29(5): 1189-1232.
Friedman, J.H. 2002, Stochastic gradient boosting. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 38(4): 367-378. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-9473(01)00065-2
Geneste, J.-M. 1990, Développement des systèmes de production lithique au cours du Paléolithique moyen en Aquitaine septentrionale, In: Paléolithique Moyen Récent et Paléolithique Supérieur Ancien en Europe (C. Farizy, Ed.), Mémoires du Musée de Préhistoire d’Ile-de-France., Nemours, APRAIF: p. 203-214. (“Development of lithic production systems along the Middle Paleolithic at septentrional Aquitania”)
González-Molina, I., Jiménez-García, B., Maíllo-Fernández, J.-M., Baquedano, E. & Domínguez-Rodrigo, M. 2020, Distinguishing Discoid and Centripetal Levallois methods through machine learning. PLOS ONE, 15(12): e0244288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244288
Greenwell, B., Boehmke, B., Cunningham, J., Developers, G.B.M. & Greenwell, M.B. 2019, Package ‘gbm’. R package version, 2(5). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gbm
Grimaldi, S. & Santaniello, F. 2014, New insights into Final Mousterian lithic production in western Italy. Quaternary International, 350: 116-129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.03.057
Hand, D.J. & Till, R.J. 2001, A simple generalisation of the area under the ROC curve for multiple class classification problems. Machine learning, 45(2): 171-186. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010920819831
Hérisson, D., Brenet, M., Cliquet, D., Moncel, M.-H., Richter, J., Scott, B., Van Baelen, A., Di Modica, K., De Loecker, D., Ashton, N., Bourguignon, L., Delagnes, A., Faivre, J.-P., Folgado-Lopez, M., Locht, J.-L., Pope, M., Raynal, J.-P., Roebroeks, W., Santagata, C., Turq, A. & Van Peer, P. 2016, The emergence of the Middle Palaeolithic in north-western Europe and its southern fringes, Quaternary International, 411: 233-283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.049
Hiscock, P. 2002, Quantifying the Size of Artefact Assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29: 251-258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0705
Hovers, E. 2009, The lithic assemblages of Qafzeh Cave. Human Evolution Series. Oxford University Press, New York, 320 p.
James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T. & Tibshirani, R. 2013, An Introduction to Statistical Learning with Applications in R. Springer, New York, 607 p.
Jaubert, J. 1993, Le gisement paléolithique moyen de Mauran (Haute-Garonne): techno-économie des industries lithiques. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 90(5): 328-335. (in French) (“The Middle paleolithic site of Mauran (Haute-Garonne): techno-ecnomy of the lithic industries”). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1993.9642
Karatzoglou, A., Meyer, D. & Hornik, K. 2006, Support Vector Machines in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 15: 1-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v015.i09
Karatzoglou, A., Smola, A., Hornik, K. & Zeileis, A. 2004, kernlab - An S4 Package for Kernel Methods in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 11: 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v011.i09
Kelly, H. 1954, Contribution à l'étude de la technique de la taille levalloisienne. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 51(3-4): 149-169. (in French) (“Contribution to the study of the Levalloisian knapping technique”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1954.3077
Kuhn, M. 2008, Building Predictive Models in R using the caret Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 28(5): 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v028.i05
Kuhn, S.L. 2013, Roots of the Middle Paleolithic in Eurasia. Current Anthropology, 54(S8): S255-S268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/673529
Lantz, B. 2019, Machine learning with R: expert techniques for predictive modeling. Packt publishing ltd, Birmingham, 375 p.
Laplace, G. 1968, Recherches de typologie analytique 1968. Origini, 2: 7-64. (in French) (“Analytical Typology Research 1968”)
Lenoir, M. & Turq, A. 1995, Recurrent Centripetal Debitage (Levallois and Discoidal): Continuity or Discontinuity? In: The definition and interpretation of Levallois Technology (Dibble, H.L. & Bar-Yosef, O., Eds.), Monographs in World Archaeology Vol. 23, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin: p. 249-256.
Locht, J.-L. 2003, L'industrie lithique du gisement de Beauvais (Oise, France): objectifs et variabilité du débitage discoïde. In: Discoid Lithic Technology: Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 193-209. (in French) (“The lithic industry of the Beauvais deposit (Oise, France): objectives and variability of discoid debitage”)
de Lombera-Hermida, A., Rodríguez-Álvarez, X.P., Mosquera, M., Ollé, A., García-Medrano, P., Pedergnana, A., Terradillos-Bernal, M., López-Ortega, E., Bargalló, A., Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A., Saladié, P., Bermúdez de Castro, J.M. & Carbonell, E. 2020, The dawn of the Middle Paleolithic in Atapuerca: the lithic assemblage of TD10.1 from Gran Dolina. Journal of Human Evolution, 145: 102812. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102812
Marciani, G., Ronchitelli, A., Arrighi, S., Badino, F., Bortolini, E., Boscato, P., Boschin, F., Crezzini, J., Delpiano, D., Falcucci, A., Figus, C., Lugli, F., Oxilia, G., Romandini, M., Riel-Salvatore, J., Negrino, F., Peresani, M., Spinapolice, E.E., Moroni, A. & Benazzi, S. 2020, Lithic techno-complexes in Italy from 50 to 39 thousand years BP: An overview of lithic technological changes across the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic boundary. Quaternary International, 551: 123-149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.11.005
Marwick, B. 2008, What attributes are important for the measurement of assemblage reduction intensity? Results from an experimental stone artefact assemblage with relevance to the Hoabinhian of mainland Southeast Asia. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(5): 1189-1200. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2007.08.007
Moncel, M.-H., Ashton, N., Arzarello, M., Fontana, F., Lamotte, A., Scott, B., Muttillo, B., Berruti, G., Nenzioni, G. & Tuffreau, A. 2020, Early Levallois core technology between marine isotope stage 12 and 9 in Western Europe. Journal of human evolution, 139: 102735. DOI: https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.102735
Mortillet, G. de 1885, Le Préhistorique. Antiquité de L’Homme, Deuxième Édition., París, Bibliothèque des Sciences Contemporaines., 658 p. (in French) (“The Prehistoric. Antiquity of Man, Second Edition”).
Mourre, V. 2003, Discoïde ou pas Discoïde? Réflexions sur la pertinence des critères techniques définissant le débitage discoïde. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 1-17. (in French) (“Discoid or not Discoid? Reflections on the relevance of the technical criteria defining discoid debitage”)
Muller, A. & Clarkson, C. 2016, A new method for accurately and precisely measuring flake platform area. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 8: 178-186. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.06.015
Newcomer, M.H. & Hivernel-Guerre, F. 1974, Nucléus sur éclat: technologie et utilisation par différentes cultures préhistoriques. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 71(4): 119-128. (in French) (“Cores on flake: technology and use by different prehistoric cultures”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1974.8308
Ohel, M.Y., Bhattacharya, D.K., Bordes, F., Cahen, D., Callow, P., Collins, D., Katz, P.R., Narr, K.J., Newcomer, M.H., Pappu, R.S., Roe, D.A., Singer, R. & Wymer, J.J. 1979, The Clactonian: An Independent Complex or an Integral Part of the Acheulean? [and Comments and Reply]. Current Anthropology, 20(4): 685-726.
Pelegrin, J. 2009, Cognition and the emergence of language: a contribution from lithic technology. In: Cognitive Archaeology and Human Evolution (de Beaune, S.A., Coolidge, F.L. & Wynn, T., Eds.), Cambridge University Press, New York: p. 95-108.
Peresani, M. 1998, La variabilité du débitage discoïde dans la grotte de Fumane (Italie du Nord). Paléo, 10: 123-146. (in French) (“The variability of discoid production at the grotte de Fumane”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1998.1133
Peresani, M. 2003, An initial overview of the Middle Palaeolithic discoid industries in Central-Northern Italy. In: Discoid Lithic Technology: Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 209-224.
Perpère, M. 1986, Apport de la typométrie à la définition des éclats Levallois : l'exemple d'Ault. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 83(4): 115-118. (in French) (“Contribution of typometry to the definition of Levallois flakes: the example of Ault”) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bspf.1986.8743
Perpère, M. 1989, Les frontiéres du débitage Levallois: typométrie des éclats. L'Anthropologie, 95(4): 837-850. (in French) (“The boundaries of Levallois debitage: typometry of flakes”)
Quinlan, J.R. 1996, Improved Use of Continuous Attributes in C4.5. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 4: 77-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1613/jair.279
Quinlan, J.R. 2014, C4. 5: programs for machine learning. Elsevier, Saint Louis, 302 p.
Révillon, S. & Tuffreau, A. 1994, Introduction, In: Les industries laminaires au Paléolithique moyen (S. Révillon & A. Tuffreau, Eds.), Dossier De Documentation Archéologique., Paris, CNRS Editions: p. 11-17. (in French) (“Laminar industries in the Middle Paleolithic”)
Ridgeway, G. 2007, Generalized Boosted Models: A guide to the gbm package. R package vignette: 2007. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gbm
Ríos-Garaizar, J. 2017, A new chronological and technological synthesis for Late Middle Paleolithic of the Eastern Cantabrian Region. Quaternary International, 433: 50-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.020
Robin, X., Turck, N., Hainard, A., Tiberti, N., Lisacek, F., Sanchez, J.-C. & Müller, M. 2011, pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves, BMC bioinformatics, 12(1): 1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-12-77
Rosenberg-Yefet, T., Shemer, M. & Barkai, R. 2022, Lower Paleolithic Winds of Change: Prepared Core Technologies and the Onset of the Levallois Method in the Levantine Late Acheulian, Frontiers in Earth Science, 10: 847358. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.847358
Rumelhart, D.E., Hinton, G.E. & Williams, R.J. 1986, Learning representations by back-propagating errors. Nature, 323(6088): 533-536.
Santonja, M., Pérez-González, A., Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Panera, J., Rubio-Jara, S., Sesé, C., Soto, E., Arnold, L.J., Duval, M., Demuro, M., Ortiz, J.E., de Torres, T., Mercier, N., Barba, R. & Yravedra, J. 2014, The Middle Paleolithic site of Cuesta de la Bajada (Teruel, Spain): a perspective on the Acheulean and Middle Paleolithic technocomplexes in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 49: 556-571. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.06.003
Santonja, M., Pérez-González, A., Panera, J., Rubio-Jara, S. & Méndez-Quintas, E. 2016, The coexistence of Acheulean and Ancient Middle Palaeolithic techno-complexes in the Middle Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula, Quaternary International, 411: 367-377. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.056
Scott, B. & Ashton, N. 2011, The early middle Palaeolithic: the European context, In: The ancient human occupation of Britain (N. Ashton, S. Lewis & C. Stringer, Eds.), Developments in Quaternary Science., Oxford, Elsevier: p. 91-112.
Shott, M.J. & Seeman, M.F. 2017, Use and multifactorial reconciliation of uniface reduction measures: A pilot study at the Nobles Pond Paleoindian site. American Antiquity, 82(4): 723-741. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2017.40
Slimak, L. 1998, La variabilité des débitages discoïdes au Paléolithique moyen: diversité des méthodes et unité d'un concept. L'exemple des gisements de la Baume Néron (Soyons, Ardèche) et du Champ Grand (Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire, Loire). Préhistoire Anthropologie Méditerranéennes, 7: 75-88. (in French) (“The variability of discoid debitages in the Middle Palaeolithic: diversity of methods and unity of a concept. The example of the deposits of Baume Néron (Soyons, Ardèche) and Champ Grand (Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire, Loire)”)
Slimak, L. 2003, Les Debitages discoïdes mousteriens: evaluation d'un concept technologique. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications Vol. 1120 (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 33-65. (in French) (“Mousterian discoid debitages: evaluation of a technological concept”)
Soressi, M. & Geneste, J.-M. 2011, The History and Efficacy of the Chaîne Opératoire Approach to Lithic Analysis: Studying Techniques to Reveal Past Societies in an Evolutionary Perspective. PaleoAnthropology, 2011: 334-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4207/PA.2011.ART63
Soriano, S. & Villa, P. 2017, Early Levallois and the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic in central Italy. PLOS ONE, 12(10): e0186082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186082
Team, R. (2019). RStudio: Integrated Development for R (Version 1.2.5019). Boston, MA: RStudio, Inc. url: http://www.rstudio.com
R Core Team 2019, R: A language and environment for statistical computing. https://cran.r-project.org/bin/windows/base/
Terradas, X. 2003, Discoid flaking method: conception and technological variability. In: Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications (Peresani, M., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1120, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 19-32.
Thiébaut, C. 2013, Discoid debitage stricto sensu: a method adapted to highly mobile Middle Paleolithic groups? P@lethnology, Varia(5): 18p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/palethnologie.580
Tixier, J. & Turq, A. 1999, Kombewa et alii. Paléo, 11: 135-143. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1999.1174
de la Torre, I., Mora, R., Domı́nguez-Rodrigo, M., de Luque, L. & Alcalá, L. 2003, The Oldowan industry of Peninj and its bearing on the reconstruction of the technological skills of LowerPleistocene hominids, Journal of Human Evolution, 44(2): 203-224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(02)00206-3
Venables, W.N. & Ripley, B.D. 2002, Modern applied statistics with S (Fourth Edition ed.). Statistics and Computing. Springer, New York, 495 p.
Walker, S.H. & Duncan, D.B. 1967, Estimation of the Probability of an Event as a Function of Several Independent Variables. Biometrika, 54(1/2): 167 -179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2333860
White, M. & Ashton, N. 2003, Lower Palaeolithic Core Technology and the Origins of the Levallois Method in North-Western Europe, Current Anthropology, 44(4): 598-609.
Wickham, H., Averick, M., Bryan, J., Chang, W., McGowan, L., François, R., Grolemund, G., Hayes, A., Henry, L., Hester, J., Kuhn, M., Pedersen, T., Miller, E., Bache, S., Müller, K., Ooms, J., Robinson, D., Seidel, D., Spinu, V., Takahashi, K., Vaughan, D., Wilke, C., Woo, K. & Yutani, H. 2019, Welcome to the Tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software, 4(43): 1686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686
Wright, M.N. & Ziegler, A. 2017, ranger: A Fast Implementation of Random Forests for High Dimensional Data in C++ and R. Journal of Statistical Software, 77: 1-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v077.i01
Published
21-Dec-2023
How to Cite
Bustos-Pérez, G., Baena, J., & Vaquero, M. (2023). What lies in between: Levallois, discoid and intermediate methods. Journal of Lithic Studies, 10(2), 32 p. https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.7132
Section
Research Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This is an Open Access journal. All material is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence, unless otherwise stated.
Please read our Open Access, Copyright and Permissions policies for more information.
