Maids at the grindstone: A comparative study of New Kingdom Egypt grain grinders
Keywords:
milling, Egypt, household, women, identity, ground stone tools
Abstract
[Summary]
Grinding (or milling) grain was an important activity that took place in nearly every ancient Egyptian home. Grinding was necessary to process emmer or barley grain into flour, and thus was a key step in manufacturing bread, the most important food in ancient Egypt. Grinding in ancient Egypt is well-attested archaeologically, and is the most commonly depicted activity of the grain processing sequence in Egyptian art and texts. Indeed, it was the step that likely took the most time and labour. Despite their significance to daily life in ancient Egypt, grinding implements and activities have often been ignored in archaeological reports and historical studies. However, recent investigations of contemporary ancient cultures as well as modern ethnographic work has brought grind stones and grinding to the fore. This has resulted in new archaeological and ethnographic information, and has refined theories regarding grain grinding and those who performed it. Using this cross-cultural body of evidence and theoretical discussion as a starting point, this presentation will investigate grinding in the domestic, non-elite sphere of New Kingdom Egypt. Using the grinding quern as a focus, this study will explore how association with a grind stone, as well as the act of grinding, created or impacted the miller’s identity and contributed to their role in the household. Archaeological data, 2D and 3D artistic representations of grinding, and literary and non-literary texts discussing grinding will be examined in conversation with evidence from other cultures. This paper will argue that grinding grain was particularly associated with females, and was a low-prestige activity. However, it was an important maintenance activity in the household, and contributed significantly to the labour force and economy of New Kingdom Egypt.
References
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Livingstone, D., & Livingstone, C. 1866, Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries: and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, 1858-1864. Harper & Brothers, New York, 638 p.
Meyers, C. 2002, Having their space and eating there too: Bread production and female power in ancient Israelite households. Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues, 5: 14-44. doi:10.2307/40326551
Molleson, T. 1994, The eloquent bones of Abu Hureyra. Scientific American, 271(2): 70-75. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0894-70
Onstine, S. 2011, University of Memphis Mission to Theban Tomb 16: The life of Panehsy, chanter and priest. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 47: 231-236.
Parkinson, R. B. 1991, Voices from Ancient Egypt. An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings, British Museum Press, London, 160 p.
Parkinson, R. B. 2012, The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: A Reader’s Commentary, Widmaier Verlag, Hamburg, 384 p.
Peet, T. E. 1921, Excavations at Tell el-Amarna: A preliminary report. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 7(3/4): 169-185. doi:10.2307/3853563
Peet, T. E., & Woolley, L. 1923, The City of Akhenaten. Part I. Egypt Exploration Society, London, 176 p.
Postgate, J. N. 1984, Processing of cereals in the cuneiform record. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, 1: 103-113.
Rodríguez-Alegría, E. 2012, From grinding corn to dishing out money: A long-term history of cooking in Xaltocan, Mexico. In: The Menial Art of Cooking: Archaeological Studies of Cooking and Food Preparation, (Graff, S. R., & Rodríguez-Alegría, E., Eds.), University Press of Colorado, Boulder: p. 99-117.
Roth, A. M. 2002, The meaning of menial labor: ‘servant statues’ in Old Kingdom Serdabs. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 39: 103-121. doi:10.2307/40001151
Samuel, D. 1994, An Archaeological Study of Baking and Bread in New Kingdom Egypt. PhD Dissertation at Darwin College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 343 p.
Samuel, D. 1999, Bread making and social interactions at the Amarna workmen's village, Egypt. World Archaeology, 31(1): 121-144. doi:10.2307/125099
Samuel, D. 2000, Brewing and baking. In: Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Nicholson, P. T., & Shaw, I., Eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: p. 537 576.
Samuel, D. 2010, Experimental grinding and ancient Egyptian flour production. In: Beyond the Horizon: Studies in Egyptian Art, Archaeology and History in Honour of Barry J. Kemp, (Ikram, S., & Dodson, A., Eds.), American University in Cairo Press, Cairo: p. 456-477.
el-Sawi, A., & Gomaa, F. 1993, Das Grab des Panehsi, Gottesvaters von Heliopolis in Matariya. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesdbaden, 134 p. (in German) (“The Tomb of Panehsi, God’s Father of Heliopolis in Matariya”)
Schiaparelli, E. 1923, Relazioni sui Lavori della Missione Archeologica Italiana in Egitto (Anni 1903 - 1920) I: Esplorazione della "Valle delle Regine" Nella Necropolis di Tebe. R. Museo di Antichità, Turin, 206 p. (in Italian) (“Reports on the work of the Italian archaeological mission in Egypt (1903-1920) I: Exploration of the ‘Valley of the Queens’ in the necropolis of Thebes”)
Sweeney, D. 2004, Forever young? The representation of older and aging women in Ancient Egyptian art. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 41: 67-84. doi:10.2307/20297188
Toivari-Viitala, J. 2001, Women at Deir el-Medina: a Study of the Status and Roles of the Female Inhabitants in the Workmen's Community during the Ramesside Period. Nederlands Instituut Voor Het Nabije Oosten, Leiden, 293 p.
Wanner, I. S., Sosa, T. S., Alt, K. W., & Blos, V. T. 2007, Lifestyle, occupation, and whole bone morphology of the pre-Hispanic Maya coastal population from Xcambó, Yucatan, Mexico. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 17(3): 253-268. doi:10.1002/oa.873
Winlock, H. E. 1955, Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 106 p.
Woolley, C. L. 1922, Excavations at Tell el-Amarna. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 8(1/2): 48-82. doi:10.2307/3853624
Wright, K. 2000, The social origins of cooking and dining in early villages of Western Asia. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 66: 89-121. doi:10.1017/S0079497X0000178X
Amouretti, M. C. 1986, Le Pain et l'Huile dans la Grèce Antique: de l'Araire au Moulin. Belles Lettres, Paris, 322 p. (in French) (“Bread and oil in ancient Greece: from the plow to the mill”)
Asher, M. 1986, A Desert Dies. Viking, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 330 p.
Austin, A. 2014, Contending with Illness in Ancient Egypt: A Textual and Osteological Study of Health Care at Deir el-Medina. PhD Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 301 p.
Breasted, J. H. 1948, Egyptian Servant Statues. Pantheon Books, New York, 113 p.
Brumfiel, E. 1991, Weaving and cooking: Women’s production in Aztec Mexico. In: Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory, (Gero, J. M., & Conkey, M. W., Eds.), Basil Blackwell, Ltd., Oxford: p. 224-251.
Bruyère, B. 1939, Rapport sur les Fouilles de Deir el Médineh (1934-1935). Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, Cairo, 384 p. (in French) (“Report on the excavations of Deir el-Medina (1934-1935)”)
Černý, J. 1973, A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Cairo, 383 p.
Cooney, J. 1965, Amarna Reliefs from Hermopolis in American Collections. The Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, 110 p.
Davies, N. de G. 1920, The Tomb of Antefoker, Vizier of Sesostris I, and of His Wife, Senet (No. 60). George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, 40 p.
Dodson, A. 1990, Crown prince Djhutmose and the royal sons of the eighteenth dynasty. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 76: 87-96. doi:10.2307/3822009
Enmarch, R. 2008, A World Upturned: Commentary on and Analysis of The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 294 p.
Erman, A., & Grapow, H. 1928, Wörterbuch der Ägyptischen Sprache. Zweiter Band. J.C. Hinrichs, Leipzig, 506 p. (in German) (“Dictionary of Egyptian Language. Second Volume”)
Foxhall, L., & Forbes, H. A. 1982, Sitometria: The role of grain as a staple food in Classical Antiquity. Chiron, 12: 41-90.
Gardiner, A. H. 1906, A statuette of the high priest of Memphis, Ptahmose. Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 43: 55-59. doi:10.1524/zaes.1908.4344.jg.55
González-Marcén, P., Montón-Subías, S., & Picanzo, M. 2008, Towards an archaeology of maintenance activities. In: Engendering Social Dynamics: The Archaeology of Maintenance Activities, (Montón-Subías, S., & Sánchez-Romero, M., Eds.), Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 3-8.
Henein, N. H. 1988, Mārī Girgis: Village de Haute-Égypte. Institute Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire, Cairo, 443 p. (in French) (“Mārī Girgis: Upper Egyptian Village”)
Hofmann, T. 2006, Arbeitseinsätze und Löhne der sogenannten Sklavinnen von Deir el-Medine. In: Living and Writing in Deir el-Medine: Socio-Historical Embodiment of Deir el-Medine Texts, (Dorn, A., & Hoffman, T., Eds.), Schwabe AG, Verlag, Basel: p. 113-118. (in German) (“Work assignments and wages of the so-called slaves of Deir el-Medina”)
Hudáková, L. 2013, Innovative power of Middle Kingdom tomb decoration as reflected in the scenes of grain processing, bread-making, and brewing. In: Florilegium Aegyptiacum: eine wissenschaftliche Blütenlese von Schülern und Freunden für Helmut Satzinger zum 75. Geburtstag am 21. Jänner 2013, (Budka, J., Gundacker, R., Pieke, G., & Satzinger, H., Eds.), Seminar für Ägyptologie und Koptologie der Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, p. 159-188.
Janssen, J. J. 1997, Village Varia: Ten Studies on the History and Administration of Deir el-Medina. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, Leiden, 192 p.
Kemp, B. 1984, Amarna Reports I. The Egypt Exploration Society, 3 Doughty Mews, London, 211 p.
Kemp, B. 1986, Amarna Reports III. The Egypt Exploration Society, 3 Doughty Mews, London, 212 p.
Kemp, B. 1987, Amarna Reports IV. The Egypt Exploration Society, 3 Doughty Mews, London, 167 p.
Kemp, B., Samuel, D., & Luff, R. 1994, Food for an Ancient Egyptian city: Tell el-Amarna. In: Whither Environmental Archaeology? (Luff, R., & Rowley-Conwy, P., Eds.), Oxbow Books, Oxford: p. 133-170.
Livingstone, D., & Livingstone, C. 1866, Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries: and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, 1858-1864. Harper & Brothers, New York, 638 p.
Meyers, C. 2002, Having their space and eating there too: Bread production and female power in ancient Israelite households. Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues, 5: 14-44. doi:10.2307/40326551
Molleson, T. 1994, The eloquent bones of Abu Hureyra. Scientific American, 271(2): 70-75. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0894-70
Onstine, S. 2011, University of Memphis Mission to Theban Tomb 16: The life of Panehsy, chanter and priest. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 47: 231-236.
Parkinson, R. B. 1991, Voices from Ancient Egypt. An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings, British Museum Press, London, 160 p.
Parkinson, R. B. 2012, The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: A Reader’s Commentary, Widmaier Verlag, Hamburg, 384 p.
Peet, T. E. 1921, Excavations at Tell el-Amarna: A preliminary report. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 7(3/4): 169-185. doi:10.2307/3853563
Peet, T. E., & Woolley, L. 1923, The City of Akhenaten. Part I. Egypt Exploration Society, London, 176 p.
Postgate, J. N. 1984, Processing of cereals in the cuneiform record. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, 1: 103-113.
Rodríguez-Alegría, E. 2012, From grinding corn to dishing out money: A long-term history of cooking in Xaltocan, Mexico. In: The Menial Art of Cooking: Archaeological Studies of Cooking and Food Preparation, (Graff, S. R., & Rodríguez-Alegría, E., Eds.), University Press of Colorado, Boulder: p. 99-117.
Roth, A. M. 2002, The meaning of menial labor: ‘servant statues’ in Old Kingdom Serdabs. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 39: 103-121. doi:10.2307/40001151
Samuel, D. 1994, An Archaeological Study of Baking and Bread in New Kingdom Egypt. PhD Dissertation at Darwin College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 343 p.
Samuel, D. 1999, Bread making and social interactions at the Amarna workmen's village, Egypt. World Archaeology, 31(1): 121-144. doi:10.2307/125099
Samuel, D. 2000, Brewing and baking. In: Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Nicholson, P. T., & Shaw, I., Eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: p. 537 576.
Samuel, D. 2010, Experimental grinding and ancient Egyptian flour production. In: Beyond the Horizon: Studies in Egyptian Art, Archaeology and History in Honour of Barry J. Kemp, (Ikram, S., & Dodson, A., Eds.), American University in Cairo Press, Cairo: p. 456-477.
el-Sawi, A., & Gomaa, F. 1993, Das Grab des Panehsi, Gottesvaters von Heliopolis in Matariya. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesdbaden, 134 p. (in German) (“The Tomb of Panehsi, God’s Father of Heliopolis in Matariya”)
Schiaparelli, E. 1923, Relazioni sui Lavori della Missione Archeologica Italiana in Egitto (Anni 1903 - 1920) I: Esplorazione della "Valle delle Regine" Nella Necropolis di Tebe. R. Museo di Antichità, Turin, 206 p. (in Italian) (“Reports on the work of the Italian archaeological mission in Egypt (1903-1920) I: Exploration of the ‘Valley of the Queens’ in the necropolis of Thebes”)
Sweeney, D. 2004, Forever young? The representation of older and aging women in Ancient Egyptian art. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 41: 67-84. doi:10.2307/20297188
Toivari-Viitala, J. 2001, Women at Deir el-Medina: a Study of the Status and Roles of the Female Inhabitants in the Workmen's Community during the Ramesside Period. Nederlands Instituut Voor Het Nabije Oosten, Leiden, 293 p.
Wanner, I. S., Sosa, T. S., Alt, K. W., & Blos, V. T. 2007, Lifestyle, occupation, and whole bone morphology of the pre-Hispanic Maya coastal population from Xcambó, Yucatan, Mexico. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 17(3): 253-268. doi:10.1002/oa.873
Winlock, H. E. 1955, Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 106 p.
Woolley, C. L. 1922, Excavations at Tell el-Amarna. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 8(1/2): 48-82. doi:10.2307/3853624
Wright, K. 2000, The social origins of cooking and dining in early villages of Western Asia. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 66: 89-121. doi:10.1017/S0079497X0000178X
Published
31-Oct-2016
How to Cite
Lang, E. (2016). Maids at the grindstone: A comparative study of New Kingdom Egypt grain grinders. Journal of Lithic Studies, 3(3), 279-289. https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.v3i3.1462
Issue
Section
Presented at the 1st Meeting of the Association for Ground Stone Tools Research
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