The Journal of Lithic Studies is a peer-reviewed open access journal which focuses on archaeological research into the manufacture and use of stone tools, as well as the origin and properties of the raw materials used in their production. The journal does not focus on any specific geographic region or time period.
The querns from the Roman military camp at Hermeskeil (Rhineland-Palatinate): Bridging the gap to Caesar’s De Bello Gallico
The late-Republican military camp at Hermeskeil (Rhineland-Palatinate) is one of the few known archaeological sites from the Gallic Wars and can be linked directly to the historical record given in Caesar’s De Bello Gallico. Among the numerous finds are fragments of several badly preserved querns whose provenances can provide valuable information regarding the dating of the camp. The Hermeskeil querns are made from an unusual variety of rock types compared to material from contemporary settlements in the region. In order to determine the provenances, modal mineralogy, whole rock geochemical compositions as well as mineral chemical compositions were analysed on all fragments found until 2017. Besides vesicular lavas, the querns were made of sedimentary rocks, pebble-rich carbonates and arkoses, as well as acidic lava and plutonic rock. One volcanic rock fragment of a legionary quern is produced from lavas from Cap d’Agde in southern France. Several other querns of the Late La Tène type have their origin in Mayen in the Eifel. The plutonic rock is vaugnerite, a rare rock of granodioritic composition, which can be traced via the oppidum of Bibracte to quarries in the northern Morvan. The rhyolite comes from La Salle in eastern France. Except from the querns made of vesicular lava from the Eifel, none of these materials are known from any contemporary archaeological site in the Hunsrück area. What is more, all of them were discovered far away from their regular areas of distribution. Therefore, these querns directly reflect military supply structures as well as troop movements, because during Caesar’s campaigns damaged pieces had to be replaced by locally available products. In a time when the Roman military could not yet rely on a well-functioning supply-infrastructure this category of finds bears the potential to provide important information in connecting the Hermeskeil site with written sources. It becomes possible to prove a use of the camp during Caesar’s campaign in 51 BCE, because it was not before 52 BCE that the Roman army had moved within the distribution area of all the querns represented in Hermeskeil. Provenance studies are therefore a valuable supplement for our fragmentary picture of the Gallic War, which to date is almost completely based on historical sources.
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Lithic Studies https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Preliminary investigations on the chipped stone industry of the Copper Age settlement of Malnaş Băi (Málnásfürdő)-Füvenyestető (Covasna County, Romania)
The chipped stone collection unearthed during the 2014-2016 archaeological excavations from the Copper Age settlement at Malnaş Băi was analysed from a multidisciplinary perspective. The aims were to differentiate between the processing technologies of the local rocks and of the long-distance raw materials and to assess the technological traditions that characterise their production. The elemental composition of a selected sample set of the artefacts determined using Prompt Gamma Activation analysis (PGAA) verified the presence of both local and long-distance raw materials. In addition, the PGAA results corroborated that differentiation in both categories requires further field work and comparison. Attribute analysis, typology and use-wear investigations were employed for identifying the main features of the lithic industry in each class of raw materials. These results showed that it might be possible to differentiate between two technological traditions. One of them is represented by the on-site production of small blades made of obsidian, in the Tiszapolgár and Bodrogkeresztúr specific technology. As the PGAA proved, this raw material is a long-distance commodity, but the technological structure of the assemblage suggests its local processing. The other tradition, visible in the flint (also a long-distance material, though not knapped on-site) and local raw materials, is more characteristic for the Copper Age from the east of Carpathian Mountains, meaning the production of medium-long blades through the punch technique. As for the retouching technology and the use of implements, no differentiation based on raw materials could be observed. These preliminary investigations on the chipped stone artefacts from Malnaş Băi allowed the identification of long-distance transfer of lithic materials and technologies and to address their role in the large networks that existed during the Copper Age.
Copper Age; PGAA; attribute analysis; technologic tradition; long-distance raw materials; local raw materials; use-wear analysis
Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Lithic Studies https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Skills, scaling, and the role of youngsters in adaptation during the Northern European Final Palaeolithic
At any one time in the Palaeolithic, children constituted the largest group of individuals in a given community. While not many objects ascribed to children are known from these remote periods, it is beyond doubt that children participated in many aspects of daily life, including knapping. These youngsters played a vital role in generating technological variation and in societal adaptation. We here focus on the role of children in Northern European Final Palaeolithic societies that experienced markedly different climatic regimes in order to better understand how youngsters and their playful, exploratory learning may have contributed to adaptation. Using a mixed-methods approach we study inexperienced knappers with emphasis on three distinct groups of flintwork: blades, cores, and projectile points. We apply 2D geometric morphometrics coupled with technological attributes, quantitative and qualitative analyses to interrogate the variability within these groups with the aim of tracing the possible work of children through notions of skill level and artefact scaling. The purpose of this analysis is to investigate (i) how we can identify the signatures of children knapping flint, and (ii) how children’s participation in flintwork varied between inventories from periods characterised by distinctly different climates. Finally, to better understand the role of children in innovation and adaptation, we discuss how children’s knapping relates to the generation of technological variability, innovation, and differences in adaptation. The combined analytical focus on blades, points and cores allow us to more securely identify evidence for children, allowing us to compare their contributions to cultural variability across the two time periods.
flint; children; Final Palaeolithic; knapping; skill
From axe to grooved stone: Evidence of recycling practices in the Neolithic
This paper examines the recycling and reuse of Neolithic stone tools, with a focus on a modified shaft-hole axe fragment discovered at Wierzbie, southwestern Poland. The study involved technological and use-wear analysis, supported by 3D modelling, to trace the life cycle of this tool and its transformation into a grooved stone. Stone tool recycling in prehistoric times often involved practices like edge resharpening and the adaptation of damaged tools, reflecting a pragmatic approach to resource management. The modified axe from Wierzbie illustrates a shift in tool function, highlighting a broader trend of reusing Neolithic implements, particularly in Late and Final Neolithic and Early Bronze Age contexts. The tool's chronology was determined through detailed morpho-typological analysis and 3D model comparisons with complete Corded Ware culture (CWC) shaft-hole axes, confirming its origins within the CWC. The axe made from diabase was modified after it was damaged. The unusual nature of its modification suggests it was likely recycled during the Final Neolithic or Early Bronze Age, possibly linked to the Bell Beaker culture. This is supported by similar grooved stones used as shaft straighteners in Central Europe, particularly within Bell Beaker contexts. Microscopic analysis of the tool's surface reveals wear patterns consistent with its new function, including polishing and striation marks associated with shaping plant-derived material. The results of this study highlight the adaptive strategies employed by prehistoric communities to prolong the lifespan of tools and materials, influenced by cultural and economic factors. This study highlights the complex life cycle of stone tools, demonstrating that recycling was not merely a functional necessity but also a culturally ingrained practice that helped maintain valuable resources within specific social and economic spheres. Through this lens, the Wierzbie artefact offers important insights into the technological ingenuity and material culture of prehistoric societies in Central Europe.
Skaill knives from the Ness of Brodgar: An experimental pilot study exploring their potential for functional and technological analysis
This paper presents the results of a pilot study exploring the biographies of Skaill knives from the Neolithic site of Ness of Brodgar (UK). Skaill knives are large sandstone flakes made from beach cobbles. We present an experimental study in which we replicated and used Skaill knives. A selection of ten archaeological Skaill knives was subjected to a detailed technological and functional analysis. Functional analysis of the experimental and archaeological tools was conducted both with a low power stereomicroscope and a high-power metallographic microscope. 3D models of the archaeological Skaill knives were made to better understand and visualise technological features and use-wear traces. These observations allowed us to link the flaked cobbles, frequently found in Neolithic Orkney, to the chaîne opératoire of Skaill knives. Regarding the production process, we were able to demonstrate that it seems likely that at least some of the Skaill knives were produced using bipolar percussion. Contrary to what was hitherto assumed, it seems unlikely that the Skaill knives were produced by dashing the stones on rocks, as the archaeological evidence points towards a more controlled method of production. The experimental work generally resulted in little to no polish development, but macroscopic features such as edge rounding and edge removals frequently occurred. The archaeological Skaill knives displayed diverse use-wear traces. Certain zones displayed heavy unifacial rounding, which most likely resulted from a scraping motion on an abrasive material. Other zones displayed extensive edge removals, which could either be linked to butchering activities or to contact with harder materials. Morphologically, these traces appeared to be linked to different zones on the Skaill knives. The extensively rounded zones more commonly appeared on the short sides of Skaill knives, when cobbles were split lengthwise. The edge removals tended to occur on the long sides of Skaill knives which were split along the width of the cobble. Although specific contact materials could not be assigned, the study revealed interesting insights into the biographies of these tools.
Crossing the line: Multi-layer analysis and the identification of different borderlines
This paper introduces a volume that brings together specialists in lithic studies to explore how this proxy can reveal different spatial patterns across a large European territory. It examines how diverse behaviours in various environmental and geographical areas can enhance our understanding of social processes during European neolithisation. Initially, we investigate the concept of borders and borderlines, proposing models based on the space considered as a border, the presence of sought-after resources within this space, the agents present, and the nature of interactions between these agents. Subsequently, we discuss the potential of lithic analysis for identifying social groups and different types of borders. Neolithic cultural entities have primarily been defined through typo-stylistic analysis of pottery, while lithics are underutilised in this context. Lithics, however, offer a valuable proxy for understanding the spatial distribution of these entities. Petrographic studies now allow us to precisely define lithic sources, and all actions carried out on these raw materials are readable. Lithics thus enable the tracking of raw material origins and the movement of these materials within a given area. Establishing these circulation networks is crucial for understanding the spaces occupied by prehistoric people and the nature of their interactions. This approach allows us to map and compare spatial groupings based on consumer and producer perspectives. We argue for the necessity of multi-proxy studies and modelling to gain new insights into spatial grouping patterns and their evolution, particularly by considering borderlines at the scale of social groups.
Mesolithic; Neolithic; Europe; lithic artefacts; raw materials; circulation networks; spatial patterns; social organisation
Lithic industries and stylistic entities during the Early Neolithic (LBK) in the Rhine-Meuse-Seine basins
The study of the decorated ceramics of the Rubané or Linearbandkeramik (LBK) has long structured the construction of the chronological sequence of the Early Neolithic of northwestern Europe. Recent contributions make it possible to individualize regional stylistic groups. Examination of the different regional corpuses shows that, following the break-up of a common stylistic stage known as the Flomborn entity, the decorative elements of each region evolved differently giving rise to individualised entities that sometimes seem very homogeneous in terms of the style of decorations used (e.g., the Rhine-Meuse ensemble of the Middle Rubané). This contribution aims to compare the results obtained from the ceramic corpus with those of the lithic industry. It shows that out of a common base, regional differences emerged that are also quite significant, whether from the point of view of the procurement of raw materials, reduction process or tool typology. For example, the geographical networks of raw material circulation reveal preferential axes between certain regions (such as the northern and southern parts of the Ardennes Massif) or, on the contrary, border effects that must be compared and contrasted with the entities previously defined on the basis of decorated ceramics. The theoretical significance of these initial observations and the contribution that the techno-economic analysis of lithic industries can drive to the understanding of the relations between communities in the Early Neolithic of the Rhine-Meuse-Seine basins will be examined through network analysis.
lithic industry; Early Neolithic; LinearbandKeramik; circulation network; technological traditions
Scraper reduction at the Early Neolithic site of Hurst Fen, Suffolk, England
Prior analyses of Neolithic flaked stone assemblages in Britain have tended to focus on the relative abundance of different implement types as a basis for inferring the structure of settlement and subsistence patterns during this period, with dorsally retouched ‘scrapers’ dominating the retouched components of most assemblages. Here we investigate the relationship between scraper morphology and reduction intensity at the classic Early Neolithic site of Hurst Fen in Suffolk, England. We hypothesize that the morphological variability underpinning the distinction between formal scraper types at Hurst Fen is largely a product of increasing reduction intensity. To test this hypothesis, we apply a range of quantitative measures of reduction intensity to a sample of 175 complete scrapers from the site, including: Kuhn’s (1990) Geometric Index of Unifacial Reduction (GIUR), Hiscock and Attenbrow's (2002; 2005) retouch curvature and retouched zone indices, perimeter of retouch, and retouched edge angle. Correlation statistics and descriptive plots of the relationship between Kuhn’s GIUR and the remaining retouch characteristics reveal universally positive and statistically significant relationships, albeit with the correlation between the GIUR and retouched edge angle markedly weaker than for the other retouch characteristics. Collectively, the results of our analyses support the hypothesis that the extent to which scrapers were reduced throughout their respective use-lives was a critical factor in the creation of morphological and, by extension, typological variability in the Hurst Fen scraper assemblage. At the same time, our data suggest that Early Neolithic knappers at Hurst Fen habitually knapped and resharpened scrapers in such a manner that a relatively low edge angle of around 60˚ was continually reproduced, raising the possibility of preconceived ‘designs’ that were primarily expressed in the morphological features of retouched edges. We propose a model of scraper reduction that accounts for most of the differences in scraper morphology at Hurst Fen and evaluate the analytical utility of Clark’s hugely influential typological scheme in view of this. We also consider the implications of our findings for interpretations of morphological patterning in British Neolithic scraper assemblages more broadly.
Hurst Fen; scraper; reduction intensity; typology; Early Neolithic; Grahame Clark
Report: Peering into the Prehistoric Past of Bandhavgarh National Park, central India
This paper reports on recent discoveries of prehistoric findspots inside and around the Bandhavgarh National Park and Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh, central India). These discoveries dramatically push the antiquity of a human presence in this region back from their known existence during the historic period into the prehistoric epoch. This also means that it was prehistoric people who were the first forest dwellers of the national park. The lithic scatters are marked by a variety of microlithic forms, with a strong possibility of an older, Upper Palaeolithic presence. The localities are several and are spread over about sixty square kilometres, within the core and buffer zones of the national park, some of them being close to different stretches of the Charanganga river. They suggest a prolonged hominin presence here, in time and space. One of these areas in particular, the Jwalamukhi Ashram site-complex (JMP) with multiple localities that have yielded early remains, holds immense potential for understanding the nature of prehistoric occupation in this region, their possible dates and their palaeoenvironmental contexts. Further, discoveries within the core region of the national park point to a deeper, and possibly different, relationship between prehistoric human populations in the forest, in relation to the known historical archaeological record in this region. Future work at the region will delve into characterising the nature of prehistoric occupation in the region through a study of the lithic assemblages noted and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction on the basis of the study of various environmental proxies.
India; South Asia; Prehistoric archaeology; Microliths; Forest-scapes
Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Lithic Studies
Where have all the arrows gone? A cross-cultural comparison of Lowland Maya and Central Ohio arrow use
Arrow points are an abundant lithic resource, but exactly how abundant? Recent systematic surveys of the Mayan Lowlands and central Ohio permit a new cross-cultural comparison of arrow use, and factors that may lead to their differing accumulations in the archaeological record. Somewhat surprisingly, Mayan arrow use, at least in terms of recorded frequencies in the archaeological record, is less than that of Central Ohio Late Prehistoric populations. Central Ohio has a much smaller population density than the Yucatan peninsula, so the dearth of arrow points in the latter context is unexpected. There are many factors that may explain the paucity of arrow points in Mayan contexts, when compared to the relatively dense arrow assemblages in Ohio sites. These many factors warrant further research and analysis in both Ohio and Mayan lithic arrow studies. This research presents the results of a preliminary comparative analysis. Several factors likely explain the difference between Ohio and maya arrow frequencies. Given that most arrows in Ohio are found as isolated finds, the most likely explanation is a difference in survey coverage between Ohio and the Mayan Lowlands. The other contributing factors include the relatively short use-life of Ohio arrow points, and the lack of weapon diversity in Ohio. Both factors result in higher usage of arrows, and a higher rate of deposit when compared to the Mayan Lowlands. With the increase in digital archives and records, large-scale comparative studies such as this have the potential to change our collective understanding of warfare, conflict, and tool use by past peoples.
warfare; hunting; use-life; data analytics; curation rate; comparative studies
Experimental insights about giant core flaking débitage: The case of the late Acheulean of central Iberian Peninsula
Traditionally, Acheulean assemblages are characterized by the presence of LCT (Large Cutting Tool) and particularly bifacial pieces. In this context, the existence of large flakes as blanks for those tools is the main criteria for a chrono-geographical approach of the variability inside this technocomplex. During the time span in which Acheulean occurs, a wide variety of systematized methods for blanks production were applied probably as a response to particular raw material constraints and even to cultural traditions or constraints. In the case of the Iberian Peninsula, the quarries and workshops recently excavated in the region of Madrid, demonstrate the complexity of the flaking and shaping strategies during the second part of the Middle Pleistocene. Particularly, examples as Charco Hondo 2 (located in Los Ahijones area) or Cantera Vieja (located in Los Berrocales) both located in Madrid, demonstrate the existence of specific giant core flake exploitation, and exploitation adaptation to the blanks. In this contribution, experiments based on archaeological materials from Charco Hondo 2, are produced and studied in order to understand the existence of particular strategies in the large flake production. Concepts as predetermination or just adaptation to particular raw material constrain (even the combination of both concepts) arise when experiments were produced. In any case, those tests provide us with an excellent tool for both quantitative and qualitative understanding of reductions sequences and human intentions.
giant core; Acheulean; experimental archaeology; workshop site; débitage
On foot, by boat: Distribution methods of raw materials suitable for lithics in Central Europe in c. 4900-3400 BCE
Thanks to long-term efforts to identify the stone raw materials of Neolithic lithics, a dataset of the proportional raw material composition at Neolithic settlements for the eastern part of Bohemia and the Morava River Basin in Central Europe has been created, which can be analysed in the period c. 4900-3400 BCE The focus of this study is on four issues: (1) the chronological evolution of the mode of distribution of the raw materials of lithics and its relation to settlement dynamics; (2) the relationship between the rate of imported raw materials and settlement density; (3) the importance of navigable rivers for the long-distance transport of raw materials; and (4) a comparison of the spatial distribution of stone raw materials and ‘archaeological cultures’. In terms of chronological variations in distributional structures, it is clear that population size was an important factor affecting extra-regional distribution, particularly when compared with settlement numbers and radiocarbon density. In contrast, settlement density was not a determinant of the occurrence of imported raw materials. Navigable rivers are an important factor in the transport of goods, which is represented in the archaeological record by stone raw materials. The most evident relationship between imported raw materials and navigable rivers is in c. 4800-4500 BCE. At the end of the period under study, the construction of fortified hillforts is a significant social phenomenon, which, despite the problematic find circumstances of lithics, suggests a change in the distribution pattern. The presence of archaeological cultures (ceramic style) cannot be an explanatory factor for the changes in the distribution of stone raw materials, as the changes in internal and extra-regional distribution are not related to its changes.
raw materials; lithics; Neolithic; central Europe; distribution
Going after the new without reinventing the wheel: On the necessity of learning and teaching different approaches to lithic analysis
Brazilian archaeology developed following the same phases that the discipline as a whole went through: an initial emphasis on Historical Culturalism, followed by criticism that culminated in a range of possibilities, from the indiscriminate rejection of everything that had been done before, to a more balanced stance with the incorporation of new concepts. Specifically, we can say that there was a schism between the first professional archaeologists, interested in building historical-cultural knowledge, who sought to understand artefactual variability based on the shapes and possible functions of artifacts, and a younger generation guided by the Processualist approach, who started from the principle that the diversity of stone tools would reflect the relationship between man and environment and could be understood based on the different manufacturing techniques. Over time, criticism of the use of morphological approaches led to technology becoming a supposedly superior and more suitable method of analysis for the characterization of lithic artifacts. In Brazilian archaeological research, this reasoning has been consolidated over time and, consequently, limited not only the use of other perspectives, which could be complementary to the characterization of artifacts, but also the identification of distinct cultural groups. Considering that technological analysis understands that there are several steps involved in the manufacturing process of lithic tools and that the development of these activities occurs in an orderly manner, within a certain time and space, we present in this article some approaches that deal with the notion of Models of Sequence (Bleed 2001). The main objective is to show that even if they consider the development of activities as a process that occurs in an orderly manner, similar concepts are not necessarily substantially identical. To begin the discussion about the different approaches, we first deal with the French method called chaîne opératoire, certainly the most recognized in Brazil. Possibly, its establishment in Brazilian literature is due to successive years of teaching, learning and reproduction of key concepts, without major investment in improving and applying other methods. To this end, we discuss the North American-influenced analysis model called Reduction Sequence, exploring basic concepts capable of differentiating it from the French school. Next, we present the method called Minimum Analytical Nodule Analysis, an approach focused on the macroscopic observation of the raw material, operationalized in a very similar way to the refitting method. Subsequently, we explored the Japanese concept called Gihō, aimed at analysing laminar industries. In conclusion, we draw a parallel between these approaches, showing that some of them require a specific context to be applied or even that their inferences will only be possible in the long term and from dense collections.
lithic technology; theory; method; chaîne opératoire; reduction sequence; sequence model
Late Mesolithic Blade-and-Trapeze Industries between the Land and the Sea: example of Montenegro
This article focuses on the Late Mesolithic blade-and-trapeze industries of southeastern Europe, with a special emphasis on the Crvena Stijena and Odmut sites located in present-day Montenegro and dated to the mid-7th millennium BCE. These two sites are situated in distinct ecological niches; Crvena Stijena is within the Mediterranean climatic zone, while Odmut is positioned in the mountainous area of the central Balkans. A typo-technological comparison of these two lithic assemblages is conducted to determine whether these industries exhibit common characteristics in blade making, indicating shared cultural traditions, or whether they diverge significantly. Furthermore, they are compared with other known blade-and-trapeze industries from southeastern Europe (Žukovica - Island of Korčula, and Lepenski Vir) to ascertain the homogeneity of the Late Mesolithic in the region. Finally, their position within the larger European context is discussed through the question of their possible origin (Mediterranean or Black Sea). The results point to many similarities in blade production, implying that the Crvena Stijena and Odmut assemblages share the same traditions. Additionally, they demonstrate surprising parallels with southern Italian assemblages (Grotta dell'Uzzo, Latronico 3). Furthermore, typologically (notched blades, symmetric trapezes) and technologically (possible use of pressure flaking), the Montenegro assemblages are comparable to industries found in northern Africa and southern France. However, the resemblances are not confined to the Mediterranean. Montenegro assemblages also share common traits with potentially earlier industries situated on the Danube and around the Black Sea. In addition, some features (notched blades, trapezes, probable use of indirect percussion) links Montenegro industries with those of central-western Europe and the Alps. Unfortunately, the lack of sites and detailed technological studies, as well as the unevenness of primary data, poses a challenge in drawing conclusions about the presence of distinct technological traditions in the Late Mesolithic of southeastern Europe. Another unresolved issue pertains to the timing of the emergence of the blade-and-trapeze industries, specifically whether they precede 6700-6500 cal. BCE. In conclusion, considering that technological and genetic diversity suggest that Southeastern Europe during the 8th and 7th millennia was a vibrant region hosting diverse groups with different origins and traditions, rather than attributing the development of the blade-and-trapeze technocomplex to a single centre of origin, it is plausible to envision a complex interplay of factors contributing to its development.
Late Mesolithic; Blade-and-trapeze industries; Castelnovian; Southeastern Europe; Balkans; Adriatic; Pressure flaking; Indirect percussion
The lithic assemblages from the Palaeolithic survey research in the Megalopolis Basin, Greece
An intensive, target-oriented surface survey conducted in the Megalopolis basin during 2012-2013 led to the discovery of several Palaeolithic sites and findspots with lithics and faunal remains, including Marathousa-1, a Lower Palaeolithic open-air elephant-butchering site, dated to ca. 400-500 ka BP. This study presents the results from the techno-typological analysis of 413 lithic artefacts collected as surface or stratified finds during the survey research. The aim of the work is to evaluate the diachronic occupation of the area in relation to the lithic technologies used, the typology of the artefacts, and the raw materials exploited. It was possible to provide a chrono-cultural attribution of 167 artefacts, ranging from the Lower Palaeolithic to the Holocene, with a significant component of the collection attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic. Several diagnostic retouched tools allow us to infer that the open-air sites were occupied comparatively more intensively during the Middle Palaeolithic period. We also provide a detailed account of the lithic assemblage from Kavia cave, a previously unstudied site identified during the survey. The high frequency of artefacts pertaining to the Upper Palaeolithic in Kavia is in line with previously identified settlement and mobility patterns of the Peloponnese, where the occupation of caves becomes more intensive from the Upper Palaeolithic onward, as attested at the sites of Klissoura, Kephalari, and Franchthi. The Upper Palaeolithic component from Kavia Cave adds new data to a meagre sample of known sites from this period. The results from the typological and technological analysis of the lithic assemblages collected during the survey in Megalopolis support the conclusions of the basin's long-term and ongoing research, indicating a relatively continuous hominin presence during the Pleistocene.
Dynamic multiscalar approach for structuring and scaling human activities involving lithics
This paper aims to contribute to the discussion on borders and boundaries from the perspective of lithics. European archaeological and historical research has seen numerous endeavours to create an overarching definition of borders of spatial, social, political, linguistic and religious kinds. This is particularly important in the context of the modern, strongly divided European nation states, and this situation has a strong impact on the archaeological concept of culture. Lithic materials are usually not associated with the concepts of culture and group, which was and often still is the coordinate system for prehistoric communities since the Neolithic. How can we look at prehistoric societies as social units and integrate lithic studies into the overarching archaeological narrative? As a first step, we should put these artificial borders aside and take into account as many variables that can interfere with human behaviour as possible. This paper tries to create a framework (referring to some case studies) at micro-, meso-, and macro-scales for structuring spatial, temporal, social, contextual and habitual variables based solely on lithic materials to demonstrate the importance of stone assemblages and litho-scapes in archaeological narratives. By looking at activities involving lithics, we become aware that borders are very diverse and variable, thus cannot be treated as part of a static system. On the contrary, different boundaries (instead of borders) need to be treated as continuously changing units that function in different ways at different scales. Thus, we should try to use a dynamic multiscalar approach in lithic research.
European prehistory, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Copper Age; social organization; translocal communities; scale
Blank predetermination in the Iberian Acheulean. Insight from the cleaver on flake assemblage of Casal do Azemel site (Leiria, Portugal) by a Geometric Morphometric approach
Over the last decades, the increase of data available for the study of the archaeological topic in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Pleistocene has favoured the understanding of the technological trends of the Iberian Acheulean assemblages. These have features of a Large Flake Acheulean (LFA), displaying, among other traits, a significant presence of cleavers on flake, a specific tool type that is of great cultural and technological value. Particularly, these artefacts are privileged to discuss the importance of blank predetermination in the Acheulean techno-complex. Following this reason, in the present work we aimed to explore this topic through the 2D Geometric Morphometric Analysis of the cleaver on flake assemblage from Casal do Azemel (Leiria, Portugal), an example of a paradigmatic Iberian Acheulean site that has one of the largest collections of this type of tools in Western Europe. The results obtained revealed that no significant morphological differences were found according to the technological solutions applied to the acquisition of the blank and its secondary transformation. Considering that in most of the cases these tools display a low degree of secondary transformation, these data suggest that underlying the production of Casal do Azemel’s cleaver on flake assemblage was not only a technological and cognitive flexibility (given its typological composition), but also a conceptual, structural, and morphological standardisation. These observations allowed us to discuss the significance of blank predetermination in the Acheulean, implying the existence of greatly structured technical and cognitive prerequisites.
Large Flake Acheulean; Cleavers on flake; Geometric Morphometric Analysis; Flake Blank; Predetermination; Standardisation.
Connecting arrowheads: Differential transmission of information at the dawn of the Bronze Age
The study of the relationships between prehistoric social groups is one of the main targets in present day archaeology. A useful tool to entangle this issue is social network analysis (SNA). Some of the advantages brought by this mathematic approach refer to the possibility of studying relationships through the material culture items, or its capability to integrate different scales of analysis (macro-micro). Moreover, SNA combined with the application of bayesian statistical methods of chronological attribution can create long range diachronic series of relational information, connected with prehistoric social groups dynamics. This methodology enables archaeologists to study archaeological big data from a totally different perspective, not only focused on a descriptive or morphometric point of view. The objective of this work is to apply an SNA procedure, together with a recently developed bayesian tool of chronological attribution, to archaeological sites located in the East of the Iberian Peninsula during the 4th and 3rd millennium cal. BCE using chert arrowheads as an archaeological proxy, due to the chronologic implications their morphology has, in the referred geographic frame. It is our specific target to analyse the transition between the Bell-Beaker world and the Bronze Age, through the differential transmission of information and the time-space variability present in the archaeological record, through the study of relationships between chert arrowheads assemblages. In order to do so, we will build a relational framework between the social communities present in the Late Neolithic-Copper Age through the chert arrowheads morphologic typologies, and we will apply SNA to characterize the resulting networks. Furthermore, we will propose a new metric to quantify the cultural fragmentation using community detection algorithms, in a diachronic axis, to identify groups of sites with homogeneous technological behaviour, to check the initial hypothesis which points to the existence of periods of cultural homogeneity followed by others in which fragmentation-regionalization is dominant.
networks; chert arrowheads; social network analysis; Bronze Age; Copper Age
Report: Pedagogy and skill acquisition in flint knapping
The recent application of a new pedagogical workflow for flint knapping training showcases the high degree of skill acquisition that can be reached in 10 hours of guided practice.
Copyright (c) 2023 Journal of Lithic Studies
Light in the cave: Opal coating detection by UV-light illumination and fluorescence in a rock art context
The formation of silica coatings on the cave walls of the Points cave raises questions about the analytical access to the specificities of the pictorial material (geochemistry and petrography); and about the state of conservation of the rock art. Conventional in situ spectroscopic techniques (pXRF, pRaman) are ineffective to identify and characterize these coatings. In this study, we propose to use a UV fluorescence method for the detection and recognition of opaline coatings, based on the fluorescence specificities of the uranyl-silica complexes composing these deposits. Spectral identification using UV laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy coupled with UV illumination was performed on samples, µ-samples and on the walls of the Grotte aux Points rock art site. The well-defined peaks observed in the fluorescence emission spectra due to uranyl ions validate the detection of the complex opal-uranyl and its correspondence with the green fluorescence observed under UV light at micro and macroscopic scales. In situ optical measurements under UV illumination reveal the presence of an opal layer, in particular on the rock art walls of the cave. Observations on the occurrence and distribution of opal provide the first insights into the evolution of the walls and the chronological constraints on the development of the opal layer. regarding the interactions between the silica coating and the pigment suggested by the multi-scale observations of the µ-samples, it opens the question of rock art conservation. Thus, by developing a specific method of non-destructive characterization of opal coatings, this study starts a new approach for the study of the taphonomy of decorated walls and proposes to use siliceous mineralization both as a marker of the natural history of caves and as an index of their use by ancient human groups.
silica coating; uranyl; UV fluorescence; in situ detection; cave art
Presence of the Solutrean on the North Eastern side of the Pyrenees: The case of Ruisseau de la Boulière 2
Until recently, the extreme Eastern part of the Northern Pyrenean Piedmont was a "vacuum" on the distribution map of the Solutrean. As a matter of fact, only two sites, the Embullas cave and Espassoles open-air site, reported the Solutrean on the Pyrénées-Orientales territory which covers an area of over 4000 square kilometers. There is no explanation to justify this situation, since this zone is flanked by two important Solutrean areas. Indeed, further South, just beyond the Pyrenees there are a number of Solutrean sites in Spanish Catalonia: l’Arbreda and Reclau Viver caves in the Serinya region. For hundred and forty kilometers towards the North East, a set of remarkable Solutrean sites spread over Eastern Languedoc along the right bank of the Rhône: the Oullins, Chabot, Pâques and La Salpétrière caves in the Gard and Ardèche regions. Along the Mediterranean coast, between these two clusters, the Solutrean presence is more discreet, in the form of a discontinuous structure of sites (la Roque cave, the Col de Gigean site and the caves of Bize and La Crouzade). The publication in 2014 of the open-air site of the Vigne Bertrand at Vingrau (Pyrénées Orientales, France), close to the Espassoles site, revived the interest for the Corbières zone, a low mountainous area near the Pyrenees. The Ruisseau de la Boulière 2, located very close to the first two sites, confirms the Solutrean presence in this micro-zone. The Eastern Corbières appear today as an identifiable landmark of the Solutrean before crossing the Pyrenees. On the other hand, the discovery of a Montaut type bifacial asymmetrical point in the site leads us to suggest the hypothesis of east-western mobility, along the northern and/or southern Pyrenean piedmonts. The existence of such connections has already been reported on the basis of techno-typological convergences between Aragón (Cueva de Chaves) and Hérault (La Salpétrière) lithic industries.
Solutrean, Pyrenees, lithic industry, open-air site, Palaeolithic
The impacts of lateral obliqueness and edge angle on Levallois point morphology
The study of Levallois points is important as it combines themes relating to Levallois technology in general (such as cognitive evolution, standardisation, and cultural transmission) with discussions on the specific function of stone tools (for example, the notion of points as spear tips). Many Levantine Middle Palaeolithic assemblages feature a strong focus on Levallois point production. Traditionally, this phenomenon has been studied from a typological perspective, while more recent technological approaches have added layers of understanding, such as the recognition of the frequently recurrent Levallois character of point production in the area. Likewise, use-wear and residue analyses have led to changing perceptions of the function of Levallois points. Here we explore how two quantifiable aspects of Levallois points - cross-section angles and lateral angles - relate to the morphology of Levallois points. By combining experimental knapping with an analysis of Levallois points from Yabroud I, Syria, we show that the obliqueness of lateral preparatory removals has a significant impact on the morphology of Levallois points, particularly in terms of the feature of a Concorde-shaped profile. Likewise, we show that the lateral edge angle influences the length of the points produced. Not only does this study improve of our understanding of Levallois points, but it highlights the importance of angles in studying lithic technology. We emphasize that this study aims to investigate the impact of oblique preparatory removals on the morphology of Levallois points generally, through an initial case study of one assemblage, allowing future multivariate analysis of multiple assemblages to test our hypotheses.
Middle Palaeolithic; Levant; Levallois point; morphology; technology; standardisation; lateral obliqueness; Yabroud; Syria
Automated rapid artefact surface area measurement from imagery with computer vision
Automated surface area measurements have been of interest to archaeologists since digital imagery began allowing researchers to remotely collect artefact metrics. We present a method of automatically measuring 2D surface area from artefact planform images employing computer vision in Python. The Python script, provided as a .py file in supplementary data, creates boundaries around regions of relatively homogeneous pixels (artefacts) in the image. These bounded regions are called contours. A count of the number of pixels within each contour provides a surface area in pixels. A circular reference object provides a conversion factor for the contours, as well as a point of reference for geometric accuracy of outputs. Measurements of 2D artefact surface area can be used in combination with measurements of length, width, thickness, and mass, or in some cases, replace such measurements. As presented, this technique provides utility to archaeology with applications to new documentation of artefacts, archived artefact images containing a scale, as well as landscape geoarchaeology and sedimentary contexts. Limitations of this type of surface area measurement include the requirement of the image background being of a solid colour heavily contrasting the artefacts being measured. Effectively, the background requirement limits deployment supporting collection of rapid field measurements from in-situ surface scatters without modification to the script or manipulation of the artefacts. Analytical applications utilizing this technique include studies of relative artefact abundance, shape and size class characterizations in artefact scatters, and redistribution of artefacts by geomorphological processes.
imagery; automation; digital archaeology; surface area; archaeometry
Evolution of Harvesting Technology: A Study of Diversity from Lithic and Botanical Remains in Neolithic Iberia (8th-7th millennium cal. BP)
Pioneer farming groups arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in the first half of the eighth-millennium cal. BP. Since then, the spread of new populations continued, and the highly diverse material culture of the Neolithic has been interpreted as a reflection of multiple origins and as the regionalisation that followed. In the past few decades, the study of different lithic tools has served to explore cultural Neolithic patterns. In particular, changes in harvesting technology have provided helpful information about the diffusion of Neolithic groups, proposing possible transfers in technology or even cultural adaptation to agricultural changes as explanatory factors for subsequent shifts. Here, we investigate how the initial diversity in harvesting technology changes or remains over time and in different regions according to crop harvesting preferences. Also, we test whether the diversity of harvesting tool dynamics is related to technological factors. Thus, we characterise the crops, blade production, and harvesting tools associated with different areas from 7600 to 6400 cal. BP on a large and refined chrono-cultural scale. As a result, we confirm that using one sickle type is independent of the crop harvested, and at least until the Middle Neolithic, we observe that it does not limit the incorporation of the new agricultural system into the region. By including glossy and no glossy blade measurements in the analysis, we discard the effects of technological limitations as an obstacle for replicating the parallel type in those contexts where it is not documented. Moreover, we found significant differences between the coefficients of variation in blade samples inserted differently, likely influenced by the hafting system. Whenever possible, we discuss how this adapts to blade production. Incorporating a filter in selecting the sample in favour of dated assemblages made it possible to situate these patterns on a comparative scale of two hundred years through the entire time framework.
Neolithic; Iberian Peninsula; Harvesting technology; Shafting constraint; Ecology
Black adzes in the Early Neolithic of Belgium: Contribution of the Raman microspectrometry and petrography in characterization and sourcing
Early Neolithic (Linear Pottery Culture) adzes originate from settlements and workshops accompany the neolithization of Belgium. They are made from a wide range of extraregional lithic raw materials such as metamorphic green rocks (amphibolite) and black volcanic rocks (“basalt’) beside more local or regional raw material as flints, light-coloured (sedimentary and lightly metamorphic) quartzites, black lydites (Cambrian nodular phtanite of Céroux-Mousty and Lower Namurian banded phtanites) and dark grey Lower Namurian silicified sandstones previously called “Micaceous sandstones of Horion-Hozémont’. The discovery of the workshop of Noirfontaine near the city of Liège in the 1970s and 1980s provides exceptional assemblage available for updating analytical studies. This research focuses on the multi-scale characterization, the discrimination and sourcing both Cambrian and Namurian black sedimentary rocks rich in secondary silica composing Early Neolithic adzes found in Belgium. Their black colour results from finely dispersed organic matter, but the absence of palynomorphs does not allow a biostratigraphic ascription. Additional petrographical analyses (Optical Petrography, Scanning Electron Microscope), X-ray diffraction, chemical analyses (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) and measuring the degree of graphitization of the organic matter through Raman microspectrometry have been decisive in identifying the geological and geographical provenances by comparing the acquired results with geological reference samples collected in the field or through reference collections. Cambrian lydites are coming from a very restricted area and were preferred to other more local rock sources.
adze; lydites; silicified sandstones; Raman microspectrometry; physical and chemical analyses; Early Neolithic
Experimental bone toolmaking: A proposal of technological analytical principles to knapped bones
Since the origins of technology, human groups have used a wide variety of lithic and organic raw materials to make tools. In particular, bone was used as raw material for creating knapped artefacts. Nevertheless, the recognition of these technological elements in the archaeological record has generated some debate, since modern taphonomy has shown that certain non-anthropic agents create modifications that can mimic knapped bone tools. For this reason, the criteria for identifying archaeological bone tools and pseudo-tools have still not been clearly defined. As a contribution to this subject, here we present the results of an experimental programme of intentional anthropic marrow fracturing of fresh and semi-fresh bovine long bones. After marrow removal, some of the diaphyseal fragments obtained were selected to be used directly as tools, while others were slightly retouched. The aim was to describe the bone toolmaking process and the simple and retouched tools obtained experimentally according to technological criteria. The technological analysis approach was based on an adaptation of the Logical Analytical System (LAS), which uses structural categories within an operative chain rather than techno-typological features. LAS has been widely used to analyse Pleistocene lithic assemblages and is here applied for the first time to the study of bone industry. The results allow us to present new analytical criteria with which to describe simple and retouched bone tools from a holistic perspective, combining technological and taphonomic terminology. Our intention is to improve the criteria for differentiating intentional retouching in bone tools from other modifications to bone remains generated by non-anthropic agents. The final goal of this study is to further the interdisciplinary study of minimally modified bone tools, proposing a technological method for studying knapped bone tools.
bone tools; technology; taphonomy; methodology; Logical Analytical System; knapping
Book review: Ground Stone Analysis. A Technological Approach
A game of two halves: Looking for evidence for both embedded and direct procurement in a simulated dataset
The concepts of embedded and direct procurement have become weighted with extra baggage over the years. In embedded procurement, lithics are obtained along with other resources, while direct procurement involves a deliberate trip to the source for the sole purpose of obtaining that raw material. Lewis Binford suggested that direct procurement means something went wrong (a sign of poor planning), and that embedded procurement is the norm. Other authors found valid reasons why direct procurement could be deliberate, planned, and beneficial. Regardless, the two have often been seen as diametrically opposed, and applied to interpretations of mobility and lithic procurement as if they are mutually exclusive of one another. They have also been variously conflated with expedient and curated technology, the use of local vs. exotic raw materials, and so on. The often site-centric vision of archaeologists (we find it hard to see that people may have been passing through a site, not based there and going out and coming back), can further confuse the issue. The most important problem, however, is: how can we tell the difference between embedded and direct procurement from the stone tools collected at an archaeological site? We created the scenario of a site with various proportions of stone tools from different sources. In order to not influence the site characteristics through a priori expectations, we randomly assigned source qualities and percentages in the assemblage, along with the distances and directions of each source relative to the site. Then each author analysed those data from one of two points of view: LW convinced in advance that the evidence supported embedded lithic procurement, and PM equally certain that a direct strategy was apparent. In both cases, the authors felt they had sufficient “justification” to bolster their point of view and build a strong case for their raw material procurement strategy. This exercise gave some insight into the usefulness and limitations of these two concepts as heuristic devices, as they continue to be a major influence on anyone trying to interpret lithic procurement.
lithic provisioning; direct procurement; embedded procurement; hominin mobility strategies; raw material selection
Experimental flintknapping with sandstones and prospection of lithic raw material sources from Cabra Corral area, Salta, Argentina
Within the framework of the project named Technological Variability and Social Interaction Networks in Northwest Argentina through the study of lithic technology strategies throughout the Formative period (Mercuri 2012) we collected samples of lithic raw materials in different portions of Las Conchas- Guachipas river area (Salta, Argentina) in order to create a reference collection. With part of this material we performed experimental lithic flintknapping with the aim to observe fractures and other characteristics that allow determining flintknapping quality so that we can understand and give a first reading to the selection of raw materials for making artifacts using local rocks. We present the results of these experiments conducted on sandstone, as it was the predominant raw material in the archaeological record. First results allow us to affirm that sandstone, given the availability and quality for flintknapping tasks constitutes an optimal raw material for the production of artifacts. We also note that the obtained edges are suitable for cutting work and the notches recorded in the artifacts are due probably to the characteristics of rock fracture.
ISKM 2017 - Buenos Aires Research Articles
sandstone; archaeological survey; experimentation; lithic material; Valle de Lerma, Salta
Copyright (c) 2018 Journal of Lithic Studies
Teeth as lithic raw material: Experiments and use-wear analysis
This paper explores the archaeological and ethnographic evidence for use of rodent teeth as instruments, without direct modification (without manufacturing), in replacement of lithic raw materials. There are ethnographic records that describe the use of teeth, extracted from the jaw by direct manual grip or use of handles, and also used inside the jaw, which functions as a handle. Most of the teeth that appear in archaeological contexts have been studied within the framework of zooarchaeological analysis, however, there is the possibility that the dental pieces have been used as instruments, although this has rarely been considered. The objective of this work is to present the results of a comparative study of experimental work, which we carried out with beaver (Castor canadensis) and capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), and to discuss their similarities and differences with the traces of use of lithic material. Through macro- and microscopic analysis (Stereomicroscope and metallographic microscope), we were able to characterize and explain the natural use signs of the teeth and differentiate them from the anthropic use signs produced when they are used as instruments. These traces on a macro- and microscopic scale, have different characteristics depending on the material worked and the kinematics used, and at the same time show similarities with the traces that occur on certain lithic materials. Consequently, we believe that it is possible to develop functional analyses on teeth of different animal species, and that these analyses will contribute to our knowledge about the life forms of past societies.