North American grooved-axe replication: A taphonomic experiment in central Connecticut
Keywords:
taphonomy; behavior; replication; grooved-axe; impaction
Abstract
Taphonomic experiments in lithic technology have been used to understand many facets of the archaeological record including site-formation processes, artifact displacement, and wear damage. The North American grooved-axe - an artifact type of which little technological attention has been given in the literature - is examined as a case study for a taphonomic experiment conducted in Central Connecticut. The use of an actualistic taphonomic experiment is used to generate an analogous experimental signature for archaeological grooved-axe manufacturing areas in North America. More specifically, the taphonomic experiment is used here to see if the isolated technological stage of impaction is archaeologically visible before short-term formation processes affect the manufacturing area in question. Impaction is a ground stone tool manufacturing technique that is otherwise known as pecking or hammer-dressing. Hypothesized archaeological traces of impaction include the recovery of flakes with macroscopic impaction wear and a lens of impaction slurry that is both visibly and texturally distinct. In addition to generating an experimental analogue for grooved-axe impaction, the replicative dimension of the taphonomic experiment is used to informally assess the plausibility of certain technological decisions in axe manufacture. Here, the use of quartzite impaction tools and expedient anvils in the production of North American grooved-axes are scrutinized.
References
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Adams, J.L. 2014b, Ground Stone Use-wear Analysis: A Review of Terminology and Experimental Methods. Journal of Archaeological Science, 48: 129-138. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.01.030
Balirán, C. 2014, Trampling, Taphonomy, and Experiments with Lithic Artifacts in the Southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina). In: Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record (Borazzo, K. & Weitzel, C., Eds.), Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNICEN, Olavarría: p. 85-96.
Barkley, H. 1957, Comments of the Indian Axe. Central States Archaeological Journal, 4(2): 50-56.
Binford, L.R. 1980, Willow Smoke and Dogs' Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity, 45(1): 4-20. doi:10.2307/279653
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Borazzo, K. 2016, Lithic Taphonomy in Desert Environments: Contributions from Fuego-Patagonia (Southern South America). Quaternary International, 422: 19-28. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.012
Borazzo, K., & Weitzel, C. (Eds.) 2014, Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record, InterSecciones en Antropología. Facultad de Ciecias Sociales-UNICEN, Olavarria, 110 p.
Borrero, L.A. 2014, Multi-Surface Taphonomy. Shells, Garbage, and Floating Palimpsests. In: Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record (Borazzo, K. & Weitzel, C., Eds.), Facultad de Ciencias Sociales- UNICEN, Olavarría: p. 13-20.
Butkus, E. 1999, Prehistoric Axes from Chicago. Central States Archaeological Journal, 46(3): 108-111.
Callahan, E. 2016, Neolithic Danish Daggers Vol. II: A Manual for Flintknappers and Lithic Analysts. Warwick House Publishing, Lynchburg, 288 p.
Cresson, J. 2010, Environmental Variables, Surface Displacement and Deposition of Lithic Artifacts: A Backyard Experiment. In: Experiments and Interpretation of Traditional Technologies: Essays in Honor of Errett Callahan (Nami, H.G., Ed.), Ediciones de Arqueologica Contemporanea, Buenos Aires: p. 365-380.
Dickson, F.P. 1980, Making Ground Stone Tools. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology of Oceania, 15(3): 162-167. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1980.tb00335.x
Dubreuil, L. & Savage, D. 2014, Ground stones: A Synthesis of the Use-Wear Approach. Journal of Archaeological Science, 48: 139-153. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.023
Eren, M.I., Boehm, A.R., Morgan, B.M., Anderson, R., & Andrews, B. 2011, Flaked Stone Taphonomy: a Controlled Experimental Study of the Effects of Sediment Consolidation on Flake Edge Morphology. Journal of Taphonomy, 9(3): 201-217.
Gifford, D.P. 1978, Ethnoarchaeological Observations of Natural Processes Affecting Cultural Materials. In: Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology (Gould, R.A., Ed.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 77-101.
Hayes, E., Fullagar, R., Clarkson, C., & O'Connor, S. 2014, Usewear on the Platform: ‘use-flakes' and 'retouch-flakes' from Northern Australia and Timor. In: An Integration of the Use-Wear and Residue Analysis for the Identification of the Function of Archaeological Stone Tools: Proceedings of the International Workshop, Rome, March 5th-7th, 2012 (Lemorini, C., & Cesaro, S.N., Eds.), BAR International Series Vol. 2649, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 77-90.
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Hiscock, P. 1985, The Need for a Taphonomic Perspective in Stone Artefact Analysis. Queensland Archaeological Research, 2: 82-97.
Holladay, D. 2010, A Case for Southwestern Grooved Axes: Why "Old-Style" Grooved Axes in the "Celt Age?" Bulletin of Primitive Technology, (39): 22-25.
Homsey-Messer, L., Ortmann, A., Roe, L., & Cyr, H. 2016, Taphonomy and the Role of Experimentation in Microartifact Analysis. Southeastern Archaeology, 35(1): 65-69. doi:10.1179/2168472315Y.0000000015
Hummell, G.R. 1983, The Half-Grooved Axes of Southeastern Iowa. Central States Archaeological Journal, 30(3): 122-123.
King, R. 1981, Variety in Grooved Axes Found in Northeasthern Oklahoma. Central States Archaeological Journal, 28(3): 130-133.
Kinsella, L. 2010, Responses to- A Case for Southwestern Grooved Axes: Why "Old-Style" Grooved Axes in the Celt-Age?" Bulletin of Primitive Technology, (39): 26-28.
Liebowitz, H.A. 2008, Wear Patterns on Ground Stone Implements from Tel Yin'am. In: New Approaches to Old Stone (Rowan, Y.M. & J.R., E., Eds.), Equinox, London: p. 182-195.
Lunardi, A. 2008, Experimental Testing with Polished Greenstone Axes and Adzes: Technology and Use. In: Prehistoric Technology 40 Years Later: Functional Studies and the Russian Legacy (Longo, L. & Skakun, N., Eds.), British Archaeological Reports International Series Vol. 1783, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 369-373.
Mathieu, J.R. 2002, Introduction -Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes. In: Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes (Mathieu, J.R., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1035, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 1-10.
Mathieu, J.R. & Meyer, D.A. 1997, Comparing Axe Heads of Stone, Bronze, and Steel: Studies in Experimental Archaeology. Journal of Field Archaeology, 24(3): 333-351. doi:10.1179/009346997792208122
Miles, C. 1963, Indian and Eskimo Artifacts of North America. Bonanza Books, New York, 244 p.
Mills, P.R. 1993, An Axe to Grind: A Functional Analysis of Anasazi Stone Axes from Sand Canyon Pueblo Ruin (5MT765), Southwestern Colorado. Kiva, 58(3): 393-413. doi:10.1080/00231940.1993.11758214
Munsell Color 2009, Munsell soil-color charts. Munsell Color, X-Rite, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 19 p.
Myers, A. 1989, Reliable and Maintainable Technological Strategies in the Mesolithic of Mainland Britain. In: Time, Energy and Stone Tools (Torrence, R., Ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: p. 78-91.
Nunn, G. 2006, Using the Jutland Type IC Danish Dagger as a Model to Replicate Parallel, Edge-to-Edge Pressure Flaking. In: Skilled Production and Social Reproduction (Apel, J. & Knutsson, K., Eds.), Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, Uppsala: p. 81-113.
Reid, D., & Pritchard-Parker, M.A. 1993, Preliminary Results of a Replicative Study: Metate Re-Roughening, Pecking, or Pounding? Proceedings of the Society of California Archaeology, 6: 199-206.
Reynolds, P. 1999, The Nature of Experiment in Archaeology. In: Experiment and Design: Archaeological Studies in Honour of John Coles (Harding, A.F., Ed.), Oxbow, Oxford: p. 156-162.
Schiffer, M.B. 1987, Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 448 p.
Shea, J.J. 2015, Making and Using Stone Tools: Advice for Learners and Teachers and Insights for Archaeologists. Lithic Technology, 40(3): 231-248. doi:10.1179/2051618515Y.00000000011
Stephens, B.W. 1969, The Half-grooved Axe. Central States Archaeological Journal, 16(3): 112-117.
Tringham, R. 1978, Experimentation, Ethnoarchaeology, and the Leapfrogs in Archaeological Methodology. In: Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology (Gould, R.A., Ed.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 169-199.
Wilbur, C.K. 1979, The New England Indians. The Globe Pequot Press, Chester, 108 p.
Wright, M.K. 1993, Simulated Use of Experimental Maize Grinding Tools from Southwestern Colorado. Kiva, 58(3): 345-355. doi:10.1080/00231940.1993.11758214
Adams, J.L. 2014b, Ground Stone Use-wear Analysis: A Review of Terminology and Experimental Methods. Journal of Archaeological Science, 48: 129-138. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.01.030
Balirán, C. 2014, Trampling, Taphonomy, and Experiments with Lithic Artifacts in the Southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina). In: Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record (Borazzo, K. & Weitzel, C., Eds.), Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNICEN, Olavarría: p. 85-96.
Barkley, H. 1957, Comments of the Indian Axe. Central States Archaeological Journal, 4(2): 50-56.
Binford, L.R. 1980, Willow Smoke and Dogs' Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity, 45(1): 4-20. doi:10.2307/279653
Binford, L.R., & Binford, S.R. 1966, A Preliminary Analysis of Functional Variability in The Mousterian of Levallois Facies. American Anthropologist, 68(2): 238-295. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.2.02a001030
Borazzo, K. 2016, Lithic Taphonomy in Desert Environments: Contributions from Fuego-Patagonia (Southern South America). Quaternary International, 422: 19-28. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.012
Borazzo, K., & Weitzel, C. (Eds.) 2014, Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record, InterSecciones en Antropología. Facultad de Ciecias Sociales-UNICEN, Olavarria, 110 p.
Borrero, L.A. 2014, Multi-Surface Taphonomy. Shells, Garbage, and Floating Palimpsests. In: Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record (Borazzo, K. & Weitzel, C., Eds.), Facultad de Ciencias Sociales- UNICEN, Olavarría: p. 13-20.
Butkus, E. 1999, Prehistoric Axes from Chicago. Central States Archaeological Journal, 46(3): 108-111.
Callahan, E. 2016, Neolithic Danish Daggers Vol. II: A Manual for Flintknappers and Lithic Analysts. Warwick House Publishing, Lynchburg, 288 p.
Cresson, J. 2010, Environmental Variables, Surface Displacement and Deposition of Lithic Artifacts: A Backyard Experiment. In: Experiments and Interpretation of Traditional Technologies: Essays in Honor of Errett Callahan (Nami, H.G., Ed.), Ediciones de Arqueologica Contemporanea, Buenos Aires: p. 365-380.
Dickson, F.P. 1980, Making Ground Stone Tools. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology of Oceania, 15(3): 162-167. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1980.tb00335.x
Dubreuil, L. & Savage, D. 2014, Ground stones: A Synthesis of the Use-Wear Approach. Journal of Archaeological Science, 48: 139-153. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.023
Eren, M.I., Boehm, A.R., Morgan, B.M., Anderson, R., & Andrews, B. 2011, Flaked Stone Taphonomy: a Controlled Experimental Study of the Effects of Sediment Consolidation on Flake Edge Morphology. Journal of Taphonomy, 9(3): 201-217.
Gifford, D.P. 1978, Ethnoarchaeological Observations of Natural Processes Affecting Cultural Materials. In: Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology (Gould, R.A., Ed.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 77-101.
Hayes, E., Fullagar, R., Clarkson, C., & O'Connor, S. 2014, Usewear on the Platform: ‘use-flakes' and 'retouch-flakes' from Northern Australia and Timor. In: An Integration of the Use-Wear and Residue Analysis for the Identification of the Function of Archaeological Stone Tools: Proceedings of the International Workshop, Rome, March 5th-7th, 2012 (Lemorini, C., & Cesaro, S.N., Eds.), BAR International Series Vol. 2649, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 77-90.
Heizer, R.F. 1946, The Occurrence and Significance of Southwestern Grooved Axes in Southwestern California. American Antiquity, 11(3): 187-193. doi:10.2307/275561
Hiscock, P. 1985, The Need for a Taphonomic Perspective in Stone Artefact Analysis. Queensland Archaeological Research, 2: 82-97.
Holladay, D. 2010, A Case for Southwestern Grooved Axes: Why "Old-Style" Grooved Axes in the "Celt Age?" Bulletin of Primitive Technology, (39): 22-25.
Homsey-Messer, L., Ortmann, A., Roe, L., & Cyr, H. 2016, Taphonomy and the Role of Experimentation in Microartifact Analysis. Southeastern Archaeology, 35(1): 65-69. doi:10.1179/2168472315Y.0000000015
Hummell, G.R. 1983, The Half-Grooved Axes of Southeastern Iowa. Central States Archaeological Journal, 30(3): 122-123.
King, R. 1981, Variety in Grooved Axes Found in Northeasthern Oklahoma. Central States Archaeological Journal, 28(3): 130-133.
Kinsella, L. 2010, Responses to- A Case for Southwestern Grooved Axes: Why "Old-Style" Grooved Axes in the Celt-Age?" Bulletin of Primitive Technology, (39): 26-28.
Liebowitz, H.A. 2008, Wear Patterns on Ground Stone Implements from Tel Yin'am. In: New Approaches to Old Stone (Rowan, Y.M. & J.R., E., Eds.), Equinox, London: p. 182-195.
Lunardi, A. 2008, Experimental Testing with Polished Greenstone Axes and Adzes: Technology and Use. In: Prehistoric Technology 40 Years Later: Functional Studies and the Russian Legacy (Longo, L. & Skakun, N., Eds.), British Archaeological Reports International Series Vol. 1783, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 369-373.
Mathieu, J.R. 2002, Introduction -Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes. In: Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes (Mathieu, J.R., Ed.), BAR International Series Vol. 1035, Archaeopress, Oxford: p. 1-10.
Mathieu, J.R. & Meyer, D.A. 1997, Comparing Axe Heads of Stone, Bronze, and Steel: Studies in Experimental Archaeology. Journal of Field Archaeology, 24(3): 333-351. doi:10.1179/009346997792208122
Miles, C. 1963, Indian and Eskimo Artifacts of North America. Bonanza Books, New York, 244 p.
Mills, P.R. 1993, An Axe to Grind: A Functional Analysis of Anasazi Stone Axes from Sand Canyon Pueblo Ruin (5MT765), Southwestern Colorado. Kiva, 58(3): 393-413. doi:10.1080/00231940.1993.11758214
Munsell Color 2009, Munsell soil-color charts. Munsell Color, X-Rite, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 19 p.
Myers, A. 1989, Reliable and Maintainable Technological Strategies in the Mesolithic of Mainland Britain. In: Time, Energy and Stone Tools (Torrence, R., Ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: p. 78-91.
Nunn, G. 2006, Using the Jutland Type IC Danish Dagger as a Model to Replicate Parallel, Edge-to-Edge Pressure Flaking. In: Skilled Production and Social Reproduction (Apel, J. & Knutsson, K., Eds.), Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, Uppsala: p. 81-113.
Reid, D., & Pritchard-Parker, M.A. 1993, Preliminary Results of a Replicative Study: Metate Re-Roughening, Pecking, or Pounding? Proceedings of the Society of California Archaeology, 6: 199-206.
Reynolds, P. 1999, The Nature of Experiment in Archaeology. In: Experiment and Design: Archaeological Studies in Honour of John Coles (Harding, A.F., Ed.), Oxbow, Oxford: p. 156-162.
Schiffer, M.B. 1987, Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 448 p.
Shea, J.J. 2015, Making and Using Stone Tools: Advice for Learners and Teachers and Insights for Archaeologists. Lithic Technology, 40(3): 231-248. doi:10.1179/2051618515Y.00000000011
Stephens, B.W. 1969, The Half-grooved Axe. Central States Archaeological Journal, 16(3): 112-117.
Tringham, R. 1978, Experimentation, Ethnoarchaeology, and the Leapfrogs in Archaeological Methodology. In: Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology (Gould, R.A., Ed.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque: p. 169-199.
Wilbur, C.K. 1979, The New England Indians. The Globe Pequot Press, Chester, 108 p.
Wright, M.K. 1993, Simulated Use of Experimental Maize Grinding Tools from Southwestern Colorado. Kiva, 58(3): 345-355. doi:10.1080/00231940.1993.11758214
Published
15-Mar-2018
How to Cite
Swieton, M. (2018). North American grooved-axe replication: A taphonomic experiment in central Connecticut. Journal of Lithic Studies, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.1887
Issue
Section
Methodology Demonstrations
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